Advanced Energy Systems and Photovoltaic Technology

Posted on Mar 2, 2026 in Renewable Energy Engineering

Oil Extraction and Refining Processes

Oil Extraction Techniques

Oil extraction involves three main stages of recovery:

  • Primary Recovery: Uses natural well pressure or pumps to recover approximately 10% of crude oil.
  • Secondary Recovery: Injects water or gas to increase pressure, recovering 20–40% of crude.
  • Tertiary (Enhanced) Recovery: Recovers 30–60% of the crude through:
    • Thermal Injection: Steam reduces crude viscosity.
    • Gas Injection: Natural gas or CO₂ displaces the crude or reduces viscosity.
    • Chemical Injection: Polymers or surfactants improve extraction efficiency.

The Refining Process

  1. Physical Separation (Fractional Distillation): Crude oil is heated and separated according to boiling points into products such as gases, gasoline, kerosene, gasoil, and fuel oil.
  2. Chemical Conversion:
    • Cracking: Breaks heavy molecules into lighter ones like gasoline and diesel.
    • Reforming: Improves gasoline octane ratings.
    • Alkylation: Combines light molecules into more valuable products.
  3. Chemical Treatments: Removal of sulfur, nitrogen, and metals through hydrotreatment.
  4. Product Blending: Adjusting proportions to meet quality standards.

Fracking vs. Cracking

  • Fracking: Hydraulic fracturing for extracting oil or gas trapped in rock formations using high-pressure water, sand, and chemicals.
  • Cracking: A chemical process within refineries to break large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones.

Emissions Markets and Carbon Credits

The emissions market developed by the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) allows the buying and selling of emission allowances to comply with established limits. Emissions that exceed the permitted amount can be compensated through:

  • Purchase of emission allowances.
  • Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) or Joint Implementation (JI) projects, which generate carbon credits through activities that reduce emissions or sequester carbon.

According to the lime kiln verification problem, if calculated emissions exceed authorized levels, the difference must be compensated by purchasing allowances or promoting CDM/JI projects that reduce at least that amount.

Hydrogen Infrastructure

  • Hydrolineras: Stations that dispense compressed H2 transported from another location.
  • Hidrogeneras: Facilities that produce H2 on-site through electrolysis or reforming.

Carbon Footprint and Solar Radiation

Carbon Footprint Types

  • Product Carbon Footprint (PCF): Focuses on the life cycle of a specific product.
  • Organizational Carbon Footprint (OCF): Includes all activities related to the operation of a company or entity.

Solar Radiation Types

Photovoltaic panels mainly capture direct and diffuse radiation:

  • Direct Radiation: Arrives from the Sun without changes in direction.
  • Diffuse Radiation: Scattered by molecules and particles in the atmosphere.
  • Albedo Radiation: Reflected by terrestrial surfaces.
  • Total Radiation: The sum of the previous three types.

Photovoltaic Technology

Structure of a Solar Cell

  1. Front Layer: Transparent glass or protective material.
  2. Anti-reflective Coating: Minimizes light loss due to reflection.
  3. Upper Layer (n-type): Semiconductor doped with phosphorus.
  4. Lower Layer (p-type): Semiconductor doped with boron.
  5. p–n Junction: Generates the electric field that separates charge carriers (electrons and holes).
  6. Electrical Contacts:
    • Front Contact: Allows light to enter while transporting generated current.
    • Back Contact: Conductive layer to close the electrical circuit.

The main material used is crystalline silicon (c-Si), though amorphous silicon (a-Si) and thin-film technologies like CdTe and CIGS are also utilized.

Perovskite Solar Cells

  • Pros: High conversion efficiency, low production cost, and high flexibility.
  • Cons: Thermal instability and sensitivity to moisture, which limits long-term durability.

Solar Panel Components

  1. Glass Layer: Provides protection and allows light transmission.
  2. Encapsulant Layer: Protects cells from humidity and mechanical impacts.
  3. Solar Cells: Generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect.
  4. Backsheet: Provides mechanical and environmental protection on the rear side.
  5. Aluminum Frame: Gives structural rigidity and enables mounting.
  6. Junction Box: Houses electrical connections and bypass diodes.

Types of Photovoltaic Systems

  • Low-Concentration PV (LCPV): Concentration factor < 10×; uses simple optical elements (lenses/reflectors) and requires moderate tracking or fixed systems.
  • High-Concentration PV (HCPV): Concentration factors > 300×; requires high-precision solar tracking and cooling systems to dissipate heat.