Absolute Monarchy, Revolution, and War in Spain: 16th-19th Centuries
The Rise of Absolute Monarchy in the 16th Century
The 16th century witnessed a process of centralization that consolidated power in the hands of the King, a trend that had begun in the 15th century with the rise of authoritarian monarchies. Factors such as crop failures and famine contributed to the belief that a strong, centralized power was necessary. While the nobility lost political influence, they retained their social and economic privileges.
Characteristics of Absolute Monarchy
In an absolute monarchy, the king holds all power:
- Executive: The King manages and governs his subjects without consulting anyone, accountable only to God.
- Legislative: The King makes the laws.
- Judicial: The King applies justice, either directly or through delegated individuals.
King Louis XIV of France was the most prominent example of an absolute monarch, transforming France into the leading European power.
Parliamentary Monarchy in Britain
Britain was a notable exception to the rise of absolutism. The Stuart dynasty’s attempt to establish absolute rule led to civil war. Anti-monarchists, led by Cromwell, overthrew and executed King Charles I in 1649, establishing a republic.
Enlightened Despotism: The Reign of Charles III
After the death of Ferdinand VI, his brother Charles III ascended to the throne, embodying the principles of enlightened despotism.
Charles IV and the French Revolution
Charles III was succeeded by his son, Charles IV, whose reign was heavily influenced by the French Revolution.
The French Revolution (1789)
By 1789, France faced a severe financial crisis due to expenditures on wars, including support for American independence. King Louis XVI summoned the Assembly of Notables to inform the nobility and high clergy that they would have to pay taxes. Their refusal to relinquish their privileges led the King to convene the Estates-General.
Discrepancies in the Estates-General
Disagreements arose within the Estates-General. The nobility and clergy (the First and Second Estates) typically outvoted the Third Estate (commoners) two to one. The Third Estate demanded “one person, one vote.”
Formation of the National Assembly
Unable to reach an agreement, representatives of the Third Estate, on June 20, 1789, gathered at a nearby compound used for the game of *jeu de paume* (a precursor to tennis). There, they proclaimed themselves the National Assembly and swore not to disband until they had drafted a constitution for France. This marked the beginning of the Revolution.
The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
The Uprising of Aranjuez
In 1807, a popular uprising occurred in Aranjuez against Charles IV and his minister, Godoy, for allowing Napoleon’s troops to cross Spain to invade Portugal. It is believed that Fernando VII (Ferdinand), Charles IV’s son, instigated the riot.
Napoleon’s Intervention
Napoleon, taking advantage of the strained relationship between father and son, summoned them to Bayonne under the guise of mediation. He held them there and forced them to abdicate, appointing his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain.
The Uprising of May 2, 1808
Madrid, disturbed by the presence of foreign armies and rumors that Napoleon had kidnapped the royal family, rebelled on May 2, 1808.
The Course of the War
General Castaños defeated General Dupont at the Battle of Bailén (Jaén, 1808). This Spanish victory forced Joseph Bonaparte to leave Madrid, prompting Napoleon to enter the peninsula with 250,000 men. The Spanish army, less well-trained and armed, struggled. Guerrilla warfare emerged as a crucial tactic, significantly aiding the resistance.
Allied Offensive and French Defeat
In 1812, an offensive led by Wellington began from Portugal. The allied forces entered Madrid, and Joseph I fled to Vitoria. A year later, the French left Spain, and Ferdinand VII returned in 1814.
The Return of Ferdinand VII
Ferdinand VII, who had spent the war protected by Napoleon in France, returned in 1814. However, he refused to accept a constitutional monarchy and maintained the privileges of the nobility and clergy. This led to uprisings aimed at restoring the constitution, the most notable led by General Riego.