A History of the English Language: From Old English to Present Day
1. What are the Two Main Paradigms of Language Change and Variation?
The main approaches to studying language change and variation are:
Comparative Linguistics or Language Reconstruction
For example, English is a Germanic language originating from Indo-European and belonging to the Anglo-Frisian sub-group of Germanic.
The History of Language
This is the study of changes undergone by a single language over the centuries.
Types of Language Change
- Phonological
- Morpho-syntactic
- Semantic
2. Conditioned vs. Unconditioned Sound Change
Unconditioned Sound Change
Refers to sound change regardless of the phonetic context, as in the Great Vowel Shift (GVS).
Conditioned Sound Change
Refers to a phonological change conditioned by a specific phonetic environment, like the development of PDE fricative phonemes.
3. Main Processes of Morphological Change
Analogy
Modeling a language form in relation to an existing form. E.g., the transition from late Old English to early Middle English.
Hypercorrection
Language varieties within their speech community. E.g., the form “umbrellow” attempting to avoid American non-standard forms.
Backformation
Creation of a language form not historically documented.
4. What is Grammaticalisation?
A main example of syntactic change where a grammatical function is given to a previously autonomous word.
5. Processes of Semantic Change
Widening
Use of an item in more than one context. E.g., “to grow” (get bigger or grow in any quality).
Narrowing
The opposite of widening. E.g., PDE “to starve” (die of hunger) comes from OE “steorfan” (to die).
Pejoration
Linked to speakers’ social attitudes and prejudice.
Amelioration
Denotes a positive attitude towards a certain word.
Historical Periods and Linguistic Phases
Old English (OE)
700-1150: The Anglo-Saxon period
Middle English (ME)
1150-1500: The Norman period
Modern English (ModE)
1500-1900: The Modern period
Present-Day English (PDE)
1900 to the present: 20th century
6. Arrival of Germanic Speakers in the British Isles
In the 5th century, Germanic tribes (Anglo-Saxons and Jutes) arrived in England, forcing the Celts to move west and north. Germanic was the language of populations inhabiting continental Europe east of the Elbe River.
Old English Dialects
OE refers to Germanic dialects spoken by Jutes, Angles, and Saxons: Kentish, West-Saxon, Mercian, and Northumbrian.
7. Linguistic Importance of Christianisation of England
In the 6th century, the Latin alphabet was introduced, and the Anglo-Saxons abandoned the Runic alphabet. From the 9th to 11th centuries, manuscripts were translated from Latin into Old English, introducing religious and spiritual vocabulary.
8. Scandinavian Invasions and Linguistic Consequences
Anglo-Norman, a variety of French, arrived in the 8th century. The major change was the abandonment of the West-Saxon variety of OE as the “standard language.”
9. King Alfred’s Contribution to Language History
King Alfred the Great defended his kingdom against the Danes, preserving the English language. He commissioned the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and encouraged English use in writing and speech.
10. Why is OE Considered a Synthetic Language?
A synthetic language has a high morpheme-per-word ratio.
11. Nouns and Adjectives in OE vs. PDE
OE distinguishes case, number, and gender for nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. They show four cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative), three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), and two numbers (singular and plural).
12. Main Word Order in OE
Words are variable, composed of a root and an ending. OE prose has these main word orders:
- SV (main and subordinate clauses)
- S…V (subordinate clauses)
- VS (interrogative, negative, and declarative clauses)
13. Main Contributors to OE Vocabulary
Latin and Scandinavian
14. Effects of the Norman Conquest on English
During the ME period, the Normans spoke French, Latin was the language of the Church and education, and English remained the language of the majority. French words like “crown,” “marry,” “office,” etc., were introduced.
15. Major Languages Spoken in England During the ME Period
- French/Anglo-Norman (power, bureaucracy, and literature)
- Latin (learning, education, and church)
- English (majority of the population)
16. Language Levelling
Refers to the morpho-syntactic change: leveling of the OE case system, word order in ME, and grammaticalization (lexical items becoming grammatical items).
17. Changes to OE Nouns and Adjectives During ME
The OE noun case system underwent significant readjustment due to the collapse of vowels in unstressed syllables. For adjectives, the distinction between strong and weak types was lost, leaving a basic form and an -e ending form.
18. OE Grammatical Features That Continued in ME
- Reduction of the case system
- Development of the future tense with “shall/will” and the present progressive
- Introduction of the pronoun “she/shoe”
- Increasingly fixed word order
- French and Latin influence on vocabulary
19. Main Sources of Loanwords in ME
Borrowing from other languages (loanwords). E.g., Anglicisms in Italian (“spam”) and Italianisms in English (“spaghetti”).
20. Standard Language and Codification
A standard variety is the language with the highest social prestige, used in various functions and domains. Codification involves selection, acceptance, elaboration of functions, and standardization.
21. Origins of Standard English
Standard English originated from the southeastern Midland variety spoken in the London area in the 15th century. Its growth involved selection, acceptance, elaboration of functions, and codification.
22. Important Scholarly Language During the ModEngl Period
Classical languages, especially Latin, served as models for grammar improvement and rule codification.
23. Results of Linguistic Levelling in ModEngl
Similar to question 16, this refers to the leveling of the OE case system, changes in word order, and grammaticalization.
24. Consequences of British Colonial Expansion on English
- English is the official or main language in many countries (UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand).
- English is an official language in over 70 former British colonies (India, Caribbean, African countries).
- English has grown in importance in science, technology, international organizations, and business.
25. Stages of the English Diaspora
- Expansion within the British Isles (Scotland, Wales, Ireland).
- Establishment of British colonies (USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa).
- Diffusion and use as L2 in Africa and Asia.
26. Where is English Spoken and Who Speaks It?
- Inner Circle: Native language (USA, UK, Canada).
- Outer Circle: Second language (India, Pakistan, Tanzania).
- Expanding Circle: Foreign language (China, Korea, Israel).
Speakers of English today are diverse due to its global reach and multicultural nature.
27. PDE as a Global Language
English serves as a means of communication for diverse communities worldwide. Key aspects include:
- Establishment of new English-speaking communities.
- Contact and influence between English and other languages.
- Formation of non-native varieties (global Englishes).
28. Main Varieties of PDE
- Regional (Yorkshire English)
- Social (Cockney English)
- Colonial (American, Canadian)
- Immigrant (Chicano English)
- Pidgins and Creoles (Nigerian English, Tok Pisin)
- Shift-Englishes (Aboriginal English)
- English as a lingua franca
29. Language Contact and Nativisation
Language plurality and differentiation result from decentralization, acculturation, and nativisation. Nativisation involves adapting standard English words with new meanings in local contexts.