A Historical Overview of Key Events and Figures in African History
Abdel Omran’s Epidemiological System
Stage 1: Fluctuating Birth and Death Rates
High and rapidly fluctuating birth and death rates, canceling each other out, waves of epidemics & famines.
Stage 2: Declining Death Rates and Population Growth
Death rate shapes the structure of the population, improved standard of living + nutrition brings death rate down = population growth.
Stage 3: Rise of Degenerative Diseases
People adjust and birth rates start to come down. Degenerative diseases, such as heart disease and cancer, replace infectious diseases.
Stage 4: Prolonged Battle with Diseases
We get to battle with diseases for a longer time before we finally die.
African Railroads: Colonial Exploitation
The Bambada to Lake Victoria Railway
Largest building: 600 miles from Bambada to Lake Victoria: about 2500 people died in the construction of this railroad (imported Indian indentured servants). Thousands of local people also perished.
Serving Colonial Interests
Was more for the benefit of the colonists than for the African people.
Limited Local Economic Impact
Does not promote economic activity locally.
Connecting Resources to Colonial Ports
Visual map of railroads in Africa reveals that rail-lines all connect mineral deposits with colonial ports. “There are nations that are trying to get to the moon but we are trying to get to villages.”
Anthony Benezet: Early Abolitionist
Critic of Slavery
Early critic of slavery.
Education for African Children
Created a school for African children.
Anti-Slavery Society Founder
Founded the first anti-slavery society.
Published Observations on Slavery
Observations on the Importing and Purchasing of Negroes
Apartheid in South Africa
Racial Segregation and Minority Rule
A system of racial segregation in South Africa enforced through legislation by the National Party (NP), the governing party from 1948 to 1994. Under apartheid, the rights, associations, and movements of the majority black inhabitants and other ethnic groups were curtailed and Afrikaner minority rule was maintained.
Designated “Homelands”
Set aside “reserves” (called “homelands” by the white people) for the black people to live.
Black Citizenship and the 1948 Election
Everyone assigned a black citizenship – 1948 watershed election for endorsers.
Foreigners in Their Own Land
Made black people foreigners in their own land.
Migrant Labor System
Migrant labor system made it possible for people to go and work in places that they couldn’t live.
- Short term contracts.
- Mines.
- Not forced like slavery but it was the only option that most families had.
- Labor was only available to men so women and children were left behind.
- People were very dependent on this migrant life.
Dangerous Mines and Disease
Mines were extremely dangerous (many died, nearly a thousand miners died every year). Risk of disease (Tuberculosis was very deadly, came from working in the mines).
High Death Rates Decline
Very high death rates came down over time.
Temporary Labor and Lack of Rights
Labor was temporary and came with no political rights – laborers had to have a pass that showed that they were allowed to stay.
Loss of Income and Vulnerability
Essentially, if you got sick or made trouble, you got your only source of income removed.
White Minority Rule
Number of white settlers only made up 4% of the population.
Post-World War II Development
Apartheid was developed after World War II by the Afrikaner-dominated National Party and Broederbond organizations.
Aswan High Dam: Symbol of Egyptian Independence
National Pride and Defiance
Showed that Egypt was independent and powerful. Nationalist pride, defiance, tame nature.
Benefits and Drawbacks
The High Dam has resulted in protection from floods and droughts, an increase in agricultural production and employment, electricity production and improved navigation that benefits tourism. Conversely, the dam flooded a large area, causing the relocation of over 100,000 people and submerged archaeological sites, some of which were relocated as well. The dam is also blamed for coastline erosion, soil salinity and health problems.
Bartolomé de las Casas: Advocate for Indigenous Rights
Early Spanish Missionary
1st person to come as a missionary in the Spanish empire.
Critic of Treatment of Native Americans
1515: profoundly offended of acts against the enslaved Native Americans. “Horrors that go beyond human description.”
Proposed Importing Africans
His solution: import Africans instead of Native Americans.
Basic Income Grant: An Alternative to Aid
Universal Social Payments
Alternative explored by Ferguson to the aid allowances by the country. Social payments are universal instead of making people seem helpless – universal right for the citizens.
Poverty Reduction and Empowerment
Helps in many of the poverty indicators – empowerment and small market culture provided by even the most minimal income.
Berlin Conference: Dividing Africa
European Powers Draw Boundaries
14 European nations came together in Berlin in 1884-85. Drew a series of lines on a map. Established boundaries of European colonial rule.
Ignoring African Identities
The lines had nothing to do with languages, ethnic/political identifies of the African people.
Lasting Impact on Africa
Most lines still remained after the colonial period ended in the 1950-60s.
Treaty to Suppress Slavery
Included a treaty that all countries involved would suppress slavery.
Carl Linnaeus and the Taxonomy of Race
Systema Naturae
Systema Naturae
Classification of Human Races
Conception of race and the taxonomy of the human race.
Defining Phenotypes and Personalities
Broke down the four races into American, European, Asianic, and Black and gave defining phenotypes and personalities to each of them.
Educational Enforcement of Race
First time of educationally enforced race.
Cash Transfer Programs: Anti-Poverty Intervention
State Payments to Citizens
State programs as an anti-poverty intervention in which states give allowances to their citizens stemming from the labor and agricultural breakdown.
South Africa’s Model
South Africa specifics:
- Disabled and 60+ along with those who have children under 18.
- Monthly state payments.
- 45% of the households, Model has spread to other areas.
- Not high amounts of money, $150 to the elderly, $30 per child per month.
Promising Results
Results are looking promising: People are reporting higher score on marks of poverty, hunger, etc.
Cecil Rhodes: Architect of Exploitation
From Diamond Mining to Politics
Came from Britain diamond mining where earned immense amounts of money and then became a politician and later prime minister of cape colony in South Africa.
British South Africa Company and Rhodesia
Founded “British South Africa” company —> scramble for Africa.
- Annexed a huge portion of the African continent “Rhodesia”.
- Lobengula: King of Ndebele people, Rhodes signed an agreement that said that the mining companies could do “anything necessary to their operations”.
- Shameless racist, white supremacist, British supremacist, “I would annex the planets if I could”.
- Thought that Africans were only laborers.
- Proponent of the “Native Lands Act”: designated large parts of Africa for white settlement only, caused large displacement of the African people.
- Set up the “compound system”: black labor was segregated and contained within a closed compound, looked like a prison, had a guard tower.
- Large number of deaths, high mortality rate associated with the Mines in Southern Rhodesia.
- Reputation today: one of the people that established this exploitative system, architect of apartheid, remembered now as a villain.
Circular Process of Exploitation
Circular process: raw materials from Africa, Europe produces manufactured goods from these raw goods, and then exports them back to Africa – huge economic repercussions.
Code of Hammurabi and Slavery
Code of Hammurabi – oldest set of laws, example of slavery as old as human-kind.
Colonialism and Its Impact on Africa
Franz Fanon’s Perspective
Franz Fanon: colonialism was a psychological process. Legitimacy and necessity of violence to take over other lands. Violence is a cleansing act, an assertion of humanity. Fanon is not only an advocate of violence.
Consequences of Colonialism
What consequences did colonialism have on the development of Africa?
- Boosters: agriculture, railways, ports, storing exports, technology.
- People had to die to make these innovations happen.
Slave Trade and Underdevelopment
The slave trade and tyranny resulting largely in an under-developed world. See circular process, and King Leopold.
Construct: A Concept or Idea of Interest
Construct: a concept or idea of interest e.g. wellbeing.
David Livingstone: Explorer and Missionary
Rhodes-Livingstone Institute
Rhodes-Livingstone Institute – two faces of colonial history – see Rhodes.
Early Explorer and Advocate for Africans
Early explorer, Doctor, preacher and traveler in Africa from Scotland. Lifelong campaign against slavery “open sore of the world”. Empathy with Africans, saw them as fellow creatures of God, potentially fellow Christians. Had disapproval among white settlers, they burned down his house.
Honored in Africa
Died in Zambia, African followers took his dead body over 1000 miles (took over 5 months) to ship his body home. Remembered as a friend in Africa , “Africa’s first freedom fighter”.
Christianity and Commerce
“Christianity and Commerce” , civilization.
- He wanted to replace slavery with legitimate commerce.
Decolonization of Africa
Beginnings in North Africa
Process began in North Africa in 1955 when several countries joined the UN.
Watershed in South Africa
Watershed in South Africa, 1957.
The Year of Africa
1960: 16 African nations achieved independence, “the year of Africa”.
Rapid Process
Extremely rapid process in the perspective of a historian.
Rise of African Nationalist Movements
1940: a map of Africa was a map of European empire. Rise of African Nationalist Movements – ANC, Mandela, National Congress of South African – Christian groups that used the language of the colonizers and turned it against them.
European Approaches to Decolonization
European Approaches to decolonization:
- From violent repression to gestures of liberality.
- Investing in education and health care designed to develop Africa.
- Self-created vision of African development.
- French Algeria: counterinsurgency war – Franz Fannon publication.
- Portuguese colonies would succeed in stalling independence for more than a decade due to the high rates of colonists.
- Rhodesia is marked independent in 1965 but this is misleading b/c it was the whites that declared this so that they could resist the cascade of decolonization.
- Britain: from repression to cooptation – officials sought to control the process and capture resources on the way out.
- 1951: Kwame makes himself dictator/prime minister in Ghana used massive violence – placed the need of the British on these newly independent governments in Africa.
Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY)
New and Controversial Measure
Relatively new and controversial.
Years of Life Lost and Impaired Health
Includes years of life lost, premature death related to illness. Also accounts for the fact that someone might be “some state below perfect health” for several years.
Transitioning to DALY
Public health community is transitioning to using this measure instead.
Quantifying Health Loss
1 year of health list lost is = 1.67 years lived with blindness or 5.24 significant episodes of malaria or 41.67 years of life w/ intestinal worm infection.
Distributive Justice: Social Allocation of Goods
Post-Apartheid South Africa
The social allocation of goods in a society of inequality. Ex: post-apartheid south Africa, see also cash transfer programs.
W.E.B. Du Bois: African Intellectual and Activist
Founder of NAACP
Founder of NAACP, African intellectual.
Tracing WWI to Colonial Competition
Extended an argument in 1917: Du Bois traced WWI back to the European competition for African countries.
Profits from Africa and White Workers
Argued that profits from Africa could be used to buy off white workers.
Challenging Beliefs about Africans
Challenged backward beliefs about Africans.
Colonial Quest and European Conflict
Quest for African colonies drove Europeans into conflict within each other.
Ecotourism as Consumption: The Serengeti Example
Great example is Serengeti.
- Parks so that people will want to visit again.
- Merchandise such as t-shirts.
- Destructive to the perceptions of Africa and the native life.
The Enlightenment and Its Double-Edged Sword
Movement Towards Secular Understanding
Movement towards secular understanding.
Human Equality and the Problem of Slavery
Human equality: all men were created equal and endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights – slavery became increasingly morally problematic.
Exploration and Taxonomy of Races
Double edged sword – Also lead to exploration and pseudo taxonomy of races.
Evangelical Christianity in Africa
Africa as a Christian Continent
The most Christian continent in the world is Africa.
Christianity as an African Religion
Christianity is an African religion today (this has unfolded in 200 years).
Missionaries and Explorers
David Livingston (his father was one of the first missionaries in Africa) – missionaries overlapped with explorers.
Franz Fanon: The Wretched of the Earth
Writer and Psychotherapist
Writer of “The Wretched of the Earth” born in the French colony of “Martinique”. An evolved black person, European education, French speaking. Psychotherapist – lived in the French colony of Algeria, which was locked in an anti-colonial struggle.
Colonialism and Violence
Attempted to make sense of colonialism as one that infiltrated humanity – legitimacy of violence, violence a cleansing act/assertion of humanity. Fanon is not only an advocate of violence.
Frederick Cooper’s Gatekeeper State
Dependence on Foreign Aid
That thought that survival of African gatekeeper states depended on foreign aid, military assistance, introduced “no condition is permanent”.
African Leaders and External Legitimacy
African leaders primarily had trouble governing their people and earning respect by themselves, the gate between the African countries and outside allies helped the leaders to earn respect.
Frederick Lugard and Indirect Rule
Military Career and Colonial Administration
Chaplin for the British Army who fought in Afghanistan, Sudan, Malawi and remained in Africa to work as a mercenary for the British East Africa company. Spent 20+ years in Nigeria and became the theorist of “indirect rule”.
- Administering of foreign rule through the use of working through traditional chiefly authorities.
Colonialism as a Boon
Portrayed colonialism as a great boon for both the mother country and Africa.
Freedom Charter 1955: Demands for Equal Rights
The ANC sent out 50,000 volunteers into townships and the countryside to collect “freedom demands” from the people of South Africa. This system was designed to give all South Africans equal rights. Demands such as “Land to be given to all landless people”, “Living wages and shorter hours of work”, “Free and compulsory education, irrespective of colour, race or nationality”.
GDP: Measuring Economic Activity
GDP – market value of all officially recognized, final goods and services produced within a country during a given period of time (usually one year).
- Level of economic activity, wealth of individuals, material well-being, growth of an economy over time, wealth of a country, resilience of an economy, degree of industrialization.
- Shortcomings of GDP:
- A lot of economic activity isn’t counted including domestic work, black markets, etc), suggests that well-being is being achieved through consumption, averages are not good indicators of typical experience, particularly in countries with great inequality, includes bad as well as good, encourages unsustainable behaviors.
Gini Index: Measuring Income Inequality
Degree of Wealth Distribution
Measure of the degree of distribution of a country’s wealth or income. 0=perfect equality, 100=complete concentration.
Egalitarian Distribution
Completely egalitarian lines up right on the 45 degree line.
Calculating the Gini Value
Gini value [A/(A+B)] x 100.
Income Distribution Within a Country
Can also look at income distribution within a country.
Limitations of the Gini Index
Limitations: it’s a well-being indicator but different countries have different views of well-being, same index value can result from different distribution curves, demographic factors are not accounted for.
Henry Morton Stanley: Explorer and Negotiator
He negotiated treaties with chiefs in the Congo basin for Leopold.
- He left trails of corpses (used force and violence to get his way).
Heritage Based Programs: Reconnecting with Culture
Living Landscape Project
Ex. Living Landscape Project. Def: training of local people as guides, heritage managers, basically in “tourism related projects”.
Reconnecting People with Their Surroundings
To reconnect the local people with their surroundings.
Problems with Tourism as a Solution
Problems with using tourism to solve poverty.
Indicator: Measuring a Construct
Indicator: individual measure that provides information about the value of a construct.
Integrated Rural Communities: Overhauling Customary Practices
Case Study: Lesotho
Case study: Lesotho wanted to improve grazing lands, completely change the way that people grew crops (switch to cash crop like wheat).
Migrant Labor and Technological Fixes
Migrant labor system: rural communities started making money from labor, migrant labor, had exaggerated faith in technological fixes (water pipes that ended up breaking, most technologies were extremely difficult to use).
Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemmings
Slave Ownership and Hypocrisy
Owned 600 slaves, participated in auctions Sally Hemmings was his concubine. Hypocrisy isn’t an analysis: “Notes on the State of Virginia” – Jefferson was a pioneering racist: He thought that slaves should be moved to another part of the country because although “they weren’t real people, they should be free”.
Jeffrey Sachs and Millennium Villages
30 years after integrated development projects.
- Attack all the different problems at once to get rid of inter-related problems.
- Sachs had the missionary zeal (tried to be like Livingston) And didn’t make important comparisons between communities.
- As problems came up, funding decreased and money dried up.
- Encouraged villagers to borrow money to finance investments that would help to create “more successful farming” – people were left very poor because these technologies failed.
John Speke: Exploration and Racial Theories
Discovered of the Nile and Lake Victoria, hypothesized the Tutsi were lighter descendants of the biblical figure “ham”, giving them rule over Hutu.
Julius Nyerere and Ujamaa
African Socialism and Village Concentration
African socialism pioneer: “Ujamaa”: concentrated everyone in villages plan was based on the premise that African traditions are wrong.
Coercion and Displacement
When the plan didn’t work, the state started to move the villages by coercion threatening to burn down their homes.
Ignoring African Traditions
“Make it look like the representation, the maps”:
- Although this is simplified for the planners, it is not effective because it does not take into account the African traditions that were there for a reason – caused the Africans to be dumped on arid land, useless for farming.
Kariba Dam: Unfulfilled Promises
Promises of Development
Kariba Dam – Zambezi River. Promised would generate lots of electricity & bring development (irrigation).
Flooding and Unequal Distribution
Didn’t create a better life for all, it flooded a vast area of the river valley to generate electricity (electricity went to copper mines and white settlements).
King Leopold II of Belgium and the Congo Free State
Exploitation and Atrocities
See Henry Stanley. Deemed himself as the savior of Africa, insisted that he had no personal interest in Africa, said his involvement was purely a kind service, but he walked away with the Congo Free State as his personal colony. 7-10 million people in Congo died.
Kleptocracy: Exploiting National Resources
Government Corruption and Resource Exploitation
A government or state in which those in power exploit national resources. Common in the resource rich decolonized regions like Angola.
Kony 2012: Arrogant Appeal
Saving Africa
Kony 2012 – (Kony, warlord in Uganda, leader of LRA). Another part of the plan to “save Africa” example of arrogant appeal.
Land Grabs: Displacing Communities
Government-Led Land Acquisition
Used by governments to try to spur growth and agricultural economies.
International Companies and Commercial Operations
Charging international companies to come in and make commercial operations.
- Has created the issue where good land is taken from the current inhabitants.
Linnaeus: Father of Taxonomy
Classification System for Living Things
Linnaeus – father of Taxonomy wanted a classification system for every living thing (animal, mineral, vegetable?).
Phenotypes and Controversy
Used phenotypes for grouping, common physical attributes. Controversial – put man in the same group as other primates —> enlightenment.
Lord Overtoun: Chemical Factory and Poor Working Conditions
Funded medical missionaries in Africa, had a chemical factory in Britain.
- Workers were treated so poorly that it was a scandal (low pay, highly toxic metals, ulcers on the hands /inside nose, etc).
Nelson Mandela: Anti-Apartheid Leader
Working with the Enemy
“If you want to make peace with your enemy, you have to work with your enemy. Then he becomes your partner.”
Anti-Apartheid Revolutionary and President
Was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician and philanthropist who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999.
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
Are eight international development goals that were established in 2000 by UN: 1)To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, To achieve universal primary education, To promote gender equality, To reduce child mortality, To improve maternal health, To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases, To ensure environmental sustainability, To develop a global partnership for development.
Measurement: Determining Value
Measurement: set of rules we use to determine the value of something.
Mobutu Sese Seko: Kleptocracy in Zaire
Mobutu congo president 195-1997 –
- Government kleptocracy: personal fortune of 1-5 billion dollars while his resource laden nation fell from district.
- Remained US ally because of trade agreements.
Moshoeshoe I: Founder of Lesotho
Diplomacy and Nation Building
Son of King of Lesotho, created and built nation of Basotho. Played as a diplomat was his acts of friendship towards his beaten enemies. He provided land and protection to various people and this strengthened the growing Basotho nation.
Integrating Refugees
His influence and followers grew with the integration of a number of refugees and victims of the wars of calamity.
Diplomacy with Europeans
Missionaries explained to Moshoeshoe about European government – he became a diplomat between Europeans and Africans: requested that British come and prevent others from conquering them.
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)
Measuring Acute Poverty
An international measure of acute poverty covering over 100 developing countries. It complements traditional income-based poverty measures by capturing the severe deprivations that each person faces at the same time with respect to education, health and living standards.
Key Indicators
Indicators: child mortality, nutrition, years of schooling, school attendance, cooking fuel, toilet, water, electricity, floor, assets.
Mungo Park: Exploring the Niger River
Was a Scottish explorer of the African continent. He was the first Westerner known to have travelled to the central portion of the Niger River.
Native Lands Acts: Dispossession of Land
See Cecil Rhodes and Apartheid. 10% of region owned by blacks.
Ngoni Society: Mobility and Ubuntu
Before Europeans: Ngoni lived in small chiefdoms that competed with each other, very mobile, checked powers of the chief, if you have more followers, you have a stronger chiefdom.
- Shipwrecked Portuguese sailors had been integrated into Ngoni society w/ Ngoni wives and when the rescuers came to save them, the rescuers themselves decided to integrate into Ngoni society.
- 1820s: Ngoni people starting specializing in raiding their neighbors, became a mobile state moving to find new people to raid – brought captives into the kinship system (captives became wives and sons).
- Basic structural features of Ngoni system: Ubuntu “Humanity for all” identifies that divide us are not fixed but malleable.
Nzinga Mbemba: Kongo Ruler and the Slave Trade
Nzinga Nbemba – Konog Ruler who allowed and helped slave trade – letter saying that “the wrong people are being enslaved” as if slavery was a fact of life.
Olaudah Equiano: Narrative of the Slave Trade
His narrative is not his own story because he was probably born in South Carolina, b/c Equiano was a founder of the anti-slave movement.
Plantations: Colonial Development Patterns
Plantations – colonial development patterns were developed around them – see sugar.
Prince Henry the Navigator: Advancing Navigation
Prince Henry the Navigator – development of navigation technologies ability to move out in the Atlantic World and to Sub-Saharan Africa.
Reliability: Consistency of Measurement
Reliability: if i apply my indicator over multiple measures, will I get a consistent answer?
Rhodesia: Scramble for Africa
Scramble for Africa.
- Rhodes annexed a huge portion Africa “Rhodesia” large number of deaths, high mortality rate associated with the Mines in Southern Rhodesia.
- Marked independent in 1965 but this is misleading b/c it was the whites that declared this so that they could resist the cascade of decolonization.
Rooibos Tea: Marketing and Inequality
Erasing Colonial Violence
“Saving Africa through consumption practices”. Marketing erases years of colonial violence, impoverished workers.
Economic Stagnation and Inequality
Late 1990s: a period economic stagnation led to 25% of the population of the Rooibos population unemployed. Inequality has increased since apartheid.
White-Owned Land
Rooibos is grown almost completely on white-grown 93% of the land.
Rwanda: Hutu and Tutsi Conflict
Colonial Origins of Ethnic Cleansing
Rwanda fight established by colonial rule – ethnic cleansing. Planned killing with machetes months before the genocide killing many.
Serengeti: Conservation and Stereotypes
Conservation Areas and Ecotourism
Serengeti: conversation areas, hunting areas, National park, very large area. Africa stereotype and eco-tourism.
Sol Plaatje: Documenting the Impact of the Native Lands Act
South African Lands Act Writer
- documents what happens in the aftermath of this transformative law
- He tells about the human suffering in his work and then became one of the founders of the ANC
- Sugar: 16th-18th centuries: sugar was an incredible commodity
- mildly addictive, source of pleasure and comfort
- unusual commodity b/c- very large bulky crop that needs to be harvested, go through mills, and go through furnacing process within 48 hours of harvesting
- created plantations: place where large investments of capital were necessary for producing facilities for creating product (sugar), needed vast amounts of labor b/c of the large work and lethality of it
- labor is backbreaking, mortality spikes during harvesting
- life expectancy of a slave on a sugar plantation was 7 years
- The incorruptible kodak
- growing number of photographs showing Africans dead or w/ hands cut off (he chopped hands off villages whose people had failed to meet the quota of required rubber). Used to bring awareness to Congo and others like it
- National Geographic- western views of the untamed wild in Africa. The African association originally
- Thomas Clarkson- was an English abolitionist, and a leading campaigner against the slave tradein the British Empire. He helped found The Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade(also known as the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade) and helped achieve passage of the Slave Trade Actof 1807, which ended British trade in slaves.
- Transatlantic Slave Trade-
- Not many people lived to write their account of the slave trade : 15 recorded, first person accounts most celebrated: Olaudah Equiano aka Gustavus Vassa. Brown Brothers 109/170 died
- London: becomes a central figure against the transatlantic slave trade
- Ending transatlantic slave trade didn’t end slavery in the U.S, Africa, or any other parts of the world after TST ended, slavery intensified within Africa
- UN Human Development Index Development is about options, choice, and opportunities can compare across countries
- human development= enlarging people’s choices and enhancing their capabilities
- long and healthy life, knowledge, decent standard of living (constructs)
- Critiques of HDI
- no consideration of sustainability, no justification for weighting of components, originally did not consider inequality
- validity: extent to which an indicator measures what we intend it to measure
- Volta River Project- outside contracts- allowed by Kwame Nkrumah and neo-colonialism
- wanted to create the largest lake in the world to use more power
- site independent Ghana and build aluminum there themselves
- designed to move Africa out of the rural stage they were in
- William Wilberforce- a crucial English abolitionist. he became an Evangelical Christian and joined Thomas Clarkson