A Historical and Ethical Examination of Capital Punishment, Abortion, Euthanasia, and War
Death Penalty History
Historically, the death penalty was administered by tribes or families, often as revenge for crimes of varying severity. With the rise of states, this power transferred to governments. Early states executed individuals for murder and other offenses. Throughout the Middle Ages, the list of capital crimes expanded to include violations of private property, challenges to authority, and even religious dissent. Execution methods were often diabolically cruel. Over time, methods were “softened” with the development of the guillotine, electric chair, gas chamber, and lethal injection. However, the death penalty persists in many parts of the world. In Spain, the last executions coincided with the end of Franco’s regime. Capital punishment was abolished in 1978, except in times of war, and fully abolished in 1995. Currently, over half the world’s countries retain the death penalty, although an abolitionist trend has emerged in the last 30 years.
Christianity and the Death Penalty
The Old Testament accepts the death penalty for murder, idolatry, and other offenses. However, the Prophets’ influence led to a softening of this practice. In the New Testament, Jesus’ life and message revolutionized the issue:
- He challenged the law of retribution with the principle of forgiveness.
- He proclaimed love as the greatest commandment.
- He intervened to save the adulterous woman from execution.
Early Christian communities strongly opposed the death penalty. Origen stated that “Christians never kill anyone for anything.” This stance began to shift under Constantine, who aimed to address societal immorality and economic corruption through repressive measures. This marked a setback in Christian thought. By the late 4th century, St. Augustine became one of the first Christian writers to advocate for the death penalty, justifying the authority of judges to impose it. In the 13th century, St. Thomas Aquinas also defended capital punishment, appealing to the common good. These authors’ influence has been long-lasting within the Church. Today, the official Church doctrine maintains a complex stance:
- It has not explicitly condemned the use of capital punishment.
- In practice, the Church has never directly exercised this right and often intercedes for the condemned.
Types of Abortion
- Spontaneous Abortion: Results from natural causes.
- Induced Abortion: Caused by human intervention.
Types of Induced Abortion:
- Therapeutic: To save the mother’s life when seriously endangered by the pregnancy.
- Preventive/Eugenic: When there is a high risk or certainty of severe abnormalities or birth defects.
- Ethical/Humanitarian: When the pregnancy results from rape or incest.
- Psychosocial: When the pregnancy is “unwanted” due to social or psychological reasons such as economic hardship, housing problems, single motherhood, extramarital affairs, or other psychological factors.
Types of Euthanasia
Based on the action taken:
- Active: A medical action that intentionally hastens death.
- Passive: Withholding or withdrawing extraordinary or disproportionate life-sustaining treatment.
Based on the patient’s will:
- Involuntary: Without the patient’s consent or, if unavailable, the family’s consent.
- Voluntary: The patient requests to shorten or end their life due to unbearable suffering.
Euthanasia: Pros and Cons
Pros:
- The ethical argument for a dignified death.
- The risk of “therapeutic cruelty” with medical advancements.
- The plight of the elderly facing social death before physical death.
Cons:
- The existence of alternatives to euthanasia.
- Ambiguity surrounding euthanasia requests.
- The risk of non-voluntary euthanasia.
- The potential impact on healthcare professionals’ image.
War and Its Many Forms
- Interstate War: Historically fought between tribes, cities, and later, states and military blocs.
Types of War:
- Ancient Warfare: Using primitive or bladed weapons.
- Conventional Warfare: Using conventional weapons.
- Nuclear War: Using nuclear weapons, often combined with conventional weapons.
- Biochemical War: Using toxic gases, viruses, or other biological or chemical agents.
- Economic War: Blocking a nation’s imports and exports.
- Psychological Warfare: Destabilizing the enemy through misinformation and various pressures or prohibitions.
- Coup d’état: Military intervention when the common good is perceived to be threatened.
- Civil War: Conflict between two factions within a country.
- Guerrilla Warfare: Small-scale, surprise attacks, avoiding large-scale confrontations.
- Terrorism: Using terror to destabilize a system, often involving kidnapping, attacks, extortion, and murder.
St. Augustine and Just War
In “The City of God,” St. Augustine argued that the state has a right to uphold justice, even through force or war. His followers identified the “City of God” with the Empire and/or the Church, which, as earthly entities, required defense. This led to the development of the “just war” doctrine, which during the Middle Ages was formulated as follows: A war is considered “just” if:
- There is a grave injustice or prolonged tyranny justifying legitimate defense.
- All peaceful means of resolving the injustice have been exhausted before resorting to war.
- There is reasonable certainty that the calamities of war will not outweigh the injustice being addressed.