A Concise History of Pre-Reconquista Spain and the Reconquest
Pre-Reconquista Spain
Early Humans
The oldest human remains in Spain have been found in the Sima de los Huesos and Gran Dolina in the Sierra de Atapuerca in Burgos. These fossils are attributed to Homo antecessor. Abundant human fossils classified as Homo heidelbergensis have also been discovered in the Sima de los Huesos. This species, a likely transitional species between Homo neanderthalensis and Homo antecessor, migrated to the Iberian Peninsula from Africa, possibly following herds of animals upon which they depended for sustenance. The last two species of the Homo genus to appear were Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens.
Pre-Roman Civilizations
- Tarshish: A prosperous civilization that flourished in the southwestern Iberian Peninsula, renowned for its wealth and cultural significance, as evidenced by artifacts like the Treasure of El Carambolo.
- Iberians: Inhabitants of the southern Mediterranean coast of Spain. Contact with Greek and Phoenician settlers significantly influenced their cultural development. They engaged in agriculture, livestock farming, trade, and mining. Their society was hierarchically structured, with an aristocracy and slaves, and they resided in small, easily defensible towns.
- Celtiberians: Occupying the interior, their economy primarily revolved around agriculture and livestock farming, with trade playing a lesser role. They exhibited strong tribal cohesion and inhabited fortified villages, such as Numancia. Artistically, they are known for the impressive boar sculptures found in the Tagus valley, likely representing animal cults associated with their agricultural practices.
The Reconquista
The Christian Cores
Asturias
- In 722 AD, Pelayo, leading Asturian and Visigothic forces, defeated a Muslim expeditionary force at the Battle of Covadonga, marking the beginning of the Reconquista.
- Alfonso I, drawing upon the Visigothic legacy, established the “Forum Iudicum” (Visigothic Law Code) and consolidated Asturian control over previously Visigothic territories. The northward migration of the Hispano-Visigothic population further reinforced this continuity.
- Alfonso II established Oviedo as the capital and, during his reign, the tomb of St. James was purportedly discovered, which would later become a significant pilgrimage site.
- Alfonso III expanded the Asturian kingdom southward to the Douro River and moved the capital to León, marking a transition from the Asturian to the Asturian-Leonese kingdom, later known as the Kingdom of León.
Navarre
- Emerging in the western Pyrenees between France and Al-Andalus, Navarre gained its independence after the Battle of Roncesvalles against the Franks. The ruling dynasty was known as the Íñiguez dynasty.
- Navarre reached its zenith under Sancho III el Mayor, who extended his rule over Aragon and Castile.
Aragonese
- Initially a sparsely populated area in the central Pyrenees, Aragon fell under the influence of the Carolingian Empire and later Navarre. Progress in expanding southward against the Muslim stronghold in the Ebro Valley was limited.
Catalan
- The Carolingian Frankish kingdom established the Hispanic Marches, with the County of Barcelona eventually asserting its dominance.
- Wilfred the Hairy, Count of Barcelona, reclaimed territories from Muslim control and initiated a process of independence from the weakening Frankish kingdom.
Stages of the Reconquista
First Stage
Beginning with the Battle of Covadonga (722 AD), this period saw the northern Christian kingdoms consolidating their territories and gradually pushing southward, eventually reaching the Douro River. Ordoño II of León shifted the center of power southward, leading to the emergence of the Asturian-Leonese kingdom, later known as the Kingdom of León.
Second Stage
Capitalizing on the decline of the Muslim Caliphate and the fragmentation of Al-Andalus into Taifa kingdoms, Castile and León advanced beyond the Cordillera Central and occupied the Tagus basin. Toledo, a strategically important city, was recaptured in 1085 AD.
Third Stage
Following a period of stagnation due to the Almohad invasion, the Christian kingdoms resumed their southward expansion. Castile-León gradually gained control of the Guadiana Valley and the passes of Sierra Morena.
Fourth Stage
This stage witnessed the rapid conquest of the Guadalquivir Valley (Córdoba, Seville) by Ferdinand III of Castile and Valencia and the Balearic Islands by James I of Aragon. The Emirate of Granada remained the last Muslim stronghold in Iberia.
The Catholic Monarchs
- The marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1469 marked a pivotal moment in Spanish history. Both monarchs belonged to the Trastámara dynasty.
- Upon the death of Henry IV of Castile, a civil war erupted between Isabella, supported by Aragon, and Juana la Beltraneja, Henry’s alleged daughter, supported by Portugal. The conflict ended with Isabella’s victory at the Battle of Toro and the Treaty of Alcáçovas, securing the throne for Isabella.
- In 1479, Ferdinand ascended to the throne of Aragon, solidifying the dynastic union between the two kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs, as they became known, set out to unify the Iberian Peninsula under their rule.
- In January 1492, the Catholic Monarchs completed the Reconquista with the conquest of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada.
- Prior to the conquest of Granada, the Catholic Monarchs had recovered the Catalan counties of Roussillon and Cerdagne from France through the Treaty of Barcelona. Castile also completed the conquest of the Canary Islands.
- Despite the unification achieved under the Catholic Monarchs, the different kingdoms of Spain retained their distinct laws and institutions.