A Comprehensive Guide to Wheat, Rapeseed-Mustard, Lentil, Sunflower, Tobacco, and Barley Cultivation

Posted on Sep 10, 2024 in Geology

(a) Classification of Wheat

Scientific Name

Triticum aestivum

• Family: Poaceae (Grass family)
• Genus: Triticum
• Species: aestivum

Wheat Species Grown in India

1. Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum Schuh L.)
2. Macaroni wheat (Triticum durum des/)
3. Common bread wheat (T. vulgare Hist)
4. Indian dwarf wheat (Triticum spherococcum Mihi)
5. Mexican dwarf wheat (Triticum aestivum)

(b) Discussion on Wheat Management

Agro-techniques for Wheat Cultivation

• Climate and Soil
  • Temperature Requirement: GDD (Growing Degree Day) – 14750 -16000C
  • Rainfall: 150 to 1000 mm
  • Soil: Deep, well-drained, sandy loam or sandy clay loam with neutral pH of 6.0 to 8.5
• Land Preparation: After harvesting the Kharif crop, plow the field once with a country plow. Then, give 2-3 harrowings followed by 2-3 plankings to prepare a well-pulverized seedbed.
• Seed and Sowing
  1. Time of Sowing
     • North-east plain zone: Early November to mid-November
     • North-west plain zone: 1st fortnight of November for long-duration early varieties and 2nd fortnight or 3rd week of November for short-duration late varieties.
     • Central zone: 1st fortnight of November
     • Hill zone and peninsular zone: 1st fortnight of November
  2. Seed Rate
     • For timely sown: 100 kg/ha
     • For late sown: 120 kg/ha
     • Moisture stress condition: 125 kg/ha
     • For seed drill: 100 kg/ha
     • For dibbling: 25 to 30 kg/ha
  3. Seed Treatment: Captan @ 2g kg-1 seed
  4. Spacing
     • For irrigated condition: 22.5 x 8-10 cm
     • For rainfed condition: 25-30 x 5-6 cm
     • For delayed condition: 15 x 18 5-6 cm
  5. Depth of Sowing: Seeds can be sown at a depth of 5-6cm. Dwarf wheat – 4 cm
  6. Method of Sowing: Broadcasting, direct sowing, behind local plow, drilling, furrow irrigated raised bed system.
• Nutrient Management
  • Dwarf wheat (irrigated condition): 120:60:40
  • Tall wheat: 80:60:40
  • Rainfed condition: 40-60:60:40
  • N should be applied in 2-3 splits
  • 1/3 N + Full P & K should be applied as basal
  • 1/3 N at CRI just before 1st irrigation
  • 1/3 N at tiller initiation stage
  • Micronutrients
  • Zn: 25kg/ha (0.5% foliar application)
  • Mn: 0.5 % as MnSO4
  • B: 15 to 20 kg/ha
• Irrigation Management: If there is availability of only:
  • 1 Irrigation: It should be given at CRI stage
  • 2 Irrigation: CRI, Flowering stage
  • 3 Irrigation: CRI, Late jointing stage & Milk stage
  • 4 Irrigation: CRI, Late jointing, flowering, milk stage
  • 5 Irrigation: CRI, Tillering, Late jointing, flowering, milk stage (6-7cm in each irrigation)
• Weed Management: One hand weeding (4-6 weeks after sowing) followed by limited use of herbicide has proved to be the best option. 2,4-D is a very effective herbicide to kill broad-leaved weeds. To control Phalaris minor, spray Isoproturan 75% at the rate of 1kg/ha in 600-800 liters of water, 32-35 DAS.
  • Chemical Control
  • Dicot weed: 2, 4-D (Ethyl ester) @ 0.3 to 0.4 kg a.i./ha in 700 to 800 liters of water at 35 DAS or Fluroxypyr @ 0.1 to 0.3 kg a.i/ha
  • For monocot: Terbutryn @ 0.6 to 1 kg a.i/ha or Tribunil (Methabenzthazuron) @ 0.6 to 1 kg/ha or metayuron @ 1.5 kg a.i/ha
  • For monocot + dicot: 2, 4-D + Isoproturon or tribunal or Metoyuron
  • For Broadleaf: Difenzoquat @ 0.8 to 1.2 kg a.i/ha or Diclofop @ 0.84 to 1.1 kg a.i/ha
  • At advanced stages of growth: Clodinoflop @ 60g a.i/ha or sulpho sulfuron @ 20g a.i./ha up to 45 DAS.
• Harvesting
  • Sign of maturity: Yellow and dry straw
  • Harvesting should be done at 18-20% moisture condition
  • After harvesting, dry for 3-4 days
  • Storing should be done at 8-10% moisture stage
• Yield
  • 27 q/ha (average)
  • Potential yield: 60-75 q/ha
  • Punjab: 40-42 q/ha
  • WB: 23 q/ha

(a) Production Technology of Rapeseed and Mustard

1. Sowing Time

• For Rainfed Areas: Early sowing is recommended, usually from mid-September to early October.
• For Irrigated Areas: Sowing can be done from mid-October to early November.

Early sowing helps in avoiding terminal heat stress, ensuring better yields.

2. Seed Rate

• Normal Sowing: 4-5 kg/ha
• Broadcasting: 6-8 kg/ha
• Line Sowing: 3-4 kg/ha

The seed should be sown at a depth of 2-3 cm to ensure proper germination.

3. Varieties

• Popular varieties include Pusa Bold, Varuna, RH 30, RH 749, and Rohini.

Selection of variety depends on the region, resistance to diseases, and yield potential.

4. Nutrient Management

• Nitrogen (N): 80-100 kg/ha; split application, with half at sowing and the other half at the first irrigation.
• Phosphorus (P2O5): 40-60 kg/ha; applied as a basal dose at sowing.
• Potassium (K2O): 20-30 kg/ha; applied as a basal dose.
• Sulfur (S): 20-30 kg/ha; important for oil content and quality.
• Micronutrients: Zinc and boron may be required depending on soil tests.

Fertilizer Management: Ensure balanced fertilizer application based on soil test recommendations.

5. Harvesting

• Mustard is ready for harvesting when 75-80% of the siliquae turn yellow.
• Timely harvesting is essential to avoid shattering losses.
• The crop should be harvested early in the morning to reduce shattering during handling.

After harvesting, the crop should be dried, threshed, and seeds should be cleaned and stored.

6. Yield

• Average yield ranges from 12-18 quintals/ha under normal conditions.

Higher yields can be obtained with improved varieties, timely sowing, and proper nutrient and pest management.

7. Sowing Method

• Broadcasting: Seeds are spread manually and then covered with soil using a light harrow.
• Line Sowing: Seeds are sown in rows 30 cm apart with a seed drill or manually, maintaining a plant-to-plant distance of 10-15 cm. Line sowing is preferred as it facilitates better crop management practices like weeding and irrigation.

8. Water Management

• Irrigation Requirement: Rapeseed and mustard are relatively drought-tolerant but require 2-3 irrigations during the growing season for optimal yield. The critical stages for irrigation are the pre-flowering stage (30-35 days after sowing) and the pod formation stage.
• Water Conservation: In rainfed conditions, practices like mulching and conservation tillage help in retaining soil moisture.

(b) Uses of Rapeseed-Mustard

1. Edible Oil: The primary use of rapeseed-mustard is in the production of edible oil, which is widely used in cooking. The oil is rich in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, making it heart-healthy.
2. Animal Feed: The byproduct of oil extraction, known as mustard cake, is used as cattle feed due to its high protein content.
3. Green Manure: Mustard plants can be used as green manure, enriching the soil with organic matter and nutrients.
4. Medicinal Uses: Mustard oil is used in traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties. The seeds are also used in making poultices and plasters.
5. Industrial Uses: The oil is used in the production of biodiesel, lubricants, and as a base for certain cosmetic products.

(a) Cultivation of Lentil

1. Soil and Climate

• Soil: Lentils thrive in well-drained loamy or sandy loam soils with a pH range of 6.0 to 7.5. The soil should have good fertility and moderate water-holding capacity. Excessive moisture or waterlogging is detrimental.
• Climate: Lentils require a cool climate for growth and are best suited for areas with a moderate winter temperature range of 18°C to 25°C. They are drought-tolerant and can withstand short periods of dry spells but are sensitive to frost during the flowering and pod-filling stages.

2. Important Varieties

• PL 406: Early maturing variety, suitable for rainfed conditions.
• L 4147 (MALIKA): High-yielding, resistant to wilt and rust.
• KLS 218: Suitable for late sowing, tolerant to drought.
• LL 931 (SIPA): Resistant to diseases, suitable for irrigated conditions.

3. Sowing Variables

• Time of Sowing: The ideal sowing time for lentils is mid-October to early November. Early sowing helps in avoiding frost damage.
• Seed Rate: The recommended seed rate is 40-45 kg/ha, depending on seed size and soil fertility.
• Spacing: A row spacing of 30 cm and plant-to-plant spacing of 5-7 cm is ideal for optimal growth.
• Depth of Sowing: Seeds should be sown at a depth of 4-5 cm to ensure proper germination.

4. Nutrient Management

• Fertilization: Lentils fix atmospheric nitrogen through symbiotic bacteria in root nodules, hence they require less nitrogen. However, applying 20-25 kg/ha of nitrogen at sowing enhances early growth. Phosphorus is essential for root development, and 40-60 kg/ha of P₂O₅ is recommended.
• Micronutrients: Zinc and molybdenum are important micronutrients for lentils, especially in deficient soils. Zinc sulfate can be applied at 25 kg/ha.

5. Yield

• The average yield of lentil ranges between 800 to 1200 kg/ha under rainfed conditions. With proper management practices and favorable conditions, yields can reach up to 1500 kg/ha or more.

(b) Four Varieties of Chickpea

1. Pusa 362
2. JG 11
3. BDN 9-3
4. Kabuli (L 550)

Use of Sunflower

Sunflower is primarily grown for its oil-rich seeds, which are used to produce sunflower oil, a widely consumed cooking oil. The seeds are also used for making snacks, animal feed, and birdseed. Additionally, sunflower plants are used in ornamental gardening, and their by-products, like sunflower meal, are utilized in livestock feed.

Sowing, Varieties, and Nutrient Management of Sunflower

1. Sowing

• Time: Sunflower can be sown in both Kharif (June-July) and Rabi (January-February) seasons.
• Method: Sowing is generally done through line sowing with a seed drill or by dibbling. The seeds should be sown at a depth of 3-5 cm with a spacing of 60 cm between rows and 30 cm between plants.
• Seed Rate: The recommended seed rate is 5-6 kg/ha.

2. Varieties

• Some popular sunflower varieties include Morden, KBSH-1, KBSH-44, Sunbred-275, and DRSH-1. These varieties differ in their oil content, maturity period, and resistance to pests and diseases.

3. Nutrient Management

• Fertilizer Application: Sunflower requires balanced fertilization for optimal growth. A recommended dose is 60-90 kg/ha of Nitrogen (N), 60 kg/ha of Phosphorus (P₂O₅), and 40 kg/ha of Potassium (K₂O).
• Micronutrients: Sunflower is responsive to boron and zinc. Boron can be applied at 0.5 kg/ha, and zinc at 25 kg/ha in the form of zinc sulfate.
• Organic Manure: Application of 10-15 tons/ha of farmyard manure (FYM) or compost is beneficial for improving soil fertility and structure.

4. Harvesting

Sunflowers are ready for harvest when the back of the heads turns yellow and the seeds show black and white stripes. The moisture content of seeds at harvesting should be around 20%. Harvesting is usually done manually or with a combine harvester.

5. Yield

The average yield of sunflower seeds ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 tons per hectare, depending on the variety, soil, and climatic conditions. Oil content in the seeds typically ranges from 38% to 48%.

6. Sowing Time

Sunflowers are typically sown in late winter or early spring (January to March) for the main season. However, they can also be sown during the rainy season (June to July) in areas with appropriate rainfall.

7. Seed Rate

The recommended seed rate is about 5 to 6 kg per hectare. The seeds should be sown at a spacing of 45-60 cm between rows and 20-30 cm between plants.

8. Supplementary Pollination

Although sunflowers are mainly pollinated by bees, supplementary pollination can be practiced by introducing bee hives (3-5 per hectare) into the field to improve pollination and seed set, particularly in hybrid varieties.

9. Cropping System

Sunflower can be grown as a sole crop, intercrop, or as a part of a crop rotation system. It fits well in a cropping system with crops like maize, groundnut, and soybean. Intercropping sunflower with legumes is also a common practice.

(b) Varieties of Sunflower with Oil Content

1. Morden – Oil content: 38-40%
2. Surya – Oil content: 42-44%

(c) Desirable Attributes of Sunflower

1. High Oil Content: Sunflowers with high oil content (above 40%) are preferred for oil extraction.
2. Drought Tolerance: Sunflowers are valued for their ability to thrive in semi-arid regions with minimal water requirements.

Types of Tobacco and Their Area of Cultivation in India

1. Virginia Tobacco (Flue-Cured Virginia – FCV)

• Areas of Cultivation: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Odisha.
• Characteristics: High demand for its bright leaf, used mainly in cigarettes.

2. Bidi Tobacco

• Areas of Cultivation: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka.
• Characteristics: Grown primarily for making bidis (Indian hand-rolled cigarettes).

3. Chewing Tobacco

• Areas of Cultivation: Tamil Nadu, Bihar, West Bengal, and Assam.
• Characteristics: Used for various forms of chewable tobacco like gutka, khaini, etc.

Ecological Requirements, Harvesting, and Yield of Tobacco

1. Ecological Requirements

• Climate: Tobacco requires a warm climate with a temperature range of 20-30°C. It needs a long growing season without frost. Rainfall of 500-1000 mm is ideal, with a dry period at harvest time.
• Soil: Light sandy loams, sandy soils, and well-drained alluvial soils are preferred. The soil should be fertile, rich in organic matter, and slightly acidic (pH 5.5-6.5).
• Water: Irrigation is crucial in areas with insufficient rainfall, especially during the early growth stages and before flowering.

2. Harvesting and Yield

• Harvesting: Tobacco is generally harvested in stages, starting from the lower leaves to the upper ones as they mature. The leaves are plucked when they turn yellow-green, which indicates maturity.
• Curing: After harvesting, leaves undergo a curing process (air-curing, flue-curing, or sun-curing) to develop flavor and reduce moisture.
• Yield: The average yield of FCV tobacco is about 1,000-1,200 kg per hectare. Bidi tobacco yields around 1,200-1,500 kg per hectare, while chewing tobacco yields about 1,500-2,000 kg per hectare.

Intercultural Operations/ Inter Cultivation/ Inter tillage

About 20 days after transplanting, after the plants have been established, their young rootlets need very fine and pulverized subsurface soil for rapid growth and further expansion. Besides, inter-cultivation helps in mulching, removal of weeds, and proper aeration. Inter-cultivation is done effectively by Khurpi and hand hoe in smaller areas. The crops should be inter-tilled at an interval of 15-20 days or after every irrigation till the leaves are not damaged. This way the crop needs 3-4 inter-cultural operations for proper moisture preservation/conservation, better crop growth, and yield.

Fertilization

Manuring in fertilization – Depending on the tobacco and the soil type, fertilizer doses, time and method of application – Fertilizers are recommended for better fertilizer use efficiency.

1. Chloride fertilizers should not be used for smoking tobaccos as it impairs the burning properties of tobacco.
2. Fertilizers like Ammonium Sulphate, DAP, Urea, CAN, Super-phosphate and potassium sulphate, are usually used.
3. The quantities of fertilizers for various types are given in the table as per recommendations of CTRI, Raja Mundry

Topping

This is the process of removing the flower head of the tobacco plant after it blooms. The purpose of topping is to redirect the plant’s energy from flower and seed production towards the growth of leaves, which are the economically valuable part of the plant.

De-Suckering

After topping, the plant may develop side shoots known as suckers. De-suckering involves removing these suckers to prevent them from competing with the main leaves for nutrients and sunlight. This ensures better leaf quality and higher yields.

(a) Difference between Field Pea and Garden Pea

1. Botanical Name

• Field Pea: Pisum sativum var. arvense
• Garden Pea: Pisum sativum var. hortense

2. Usage

• Field Pea: Primarily grown as a forage crop, green manure, or for animal feed. Its seeds are generally not consumed directly by humans.
• Garden Pea: Cultivated mainly for its edible seeds (green peas) that are consumed fresh, canned, or frozen as a vegetable.

(b) Cultivation of Lathyrus as Paira Crop

Paira cropping (also known as utera cropping) refers to a traditional method where a secondary crop (usually a pulse) is sown in the standing main crop (usually paddy) before it is harvested. Lathyrus sativus, commonly known as grass pea or khesari, is a popular choice for paira cropping.

1. Sowing Method

• Timing: Lathyrus seeds are broadcasted in the standing paddy field 10-15 days before the paddy is harvested.
• Seed Rate: Around 40-50 kg/ha.
• Seed Treatment: Seeds should be treated with Rhizobium culture to enhance nitrogen fixation.

2. Field Preparation

• Water Management: Ensure the paddy field has proper drainage as Lathyrus cannot tolerate waterlogging.
• Field Condition: The field should be moist but not waterlogged when Lathyrus seeds are broadcasted.

3. Fertilizer Management

• No Additional Fertilizers: Usually, no extra fertilizers are required as the residual fertility from the paddy crop is sufficient.

4. Pest and Disease Management

• Aphids and Powdery Mildew: These are common problems, and regular monitoring is essential. Biopesticides or neem oil can be used for control.

5. Harvesting

• Time: Lathyrus is usually harvested in March-April when the pods are fully matured.
• Yield: The average yield is around 600-800 kg/ha.

6. Advantages

• Soil Health: Lathyrus improves soil fertility through nitrogen fixation.
• Economic Benefits: Provides an additional crop without disturbing the primary crop, making it cost-effective.

(c) Problems in Pulse Cultivation in India

1. Low Productivity: Despite a large area under cultivation, the productivity of pulses in India is low due to the use of traditional farming methods, poor-quality seeds, and inadequate irrigation facilities.
2. Susceptibility to Pests and Diseases: Pulses are highly prone to pests like pod borers and diseases like wilt and blight, leading to significant yield losses. Additionally, lack of awareness and resources for proper pest management further exacerbates the issue.

Barley

Classification

Based on Spikelet’s Arrangement on Rachis and Their Fertility Status

• H. distichon (two rows)
• H. Vulgare (six rows)
• H. Irregular (irregular)

Based on Presence or Absence of Awns

• Awned type
• Awn-less type

Climate

• It is a warm and humid climate crop, grown in tropical and subtropical regions.
• It needs 12-15°C temperature during the growing season while 30°C at ripening and maturity.
• Barley needs 200-250 mm annual rainfall.
• Barley is more drought-resistant than wheat.
• Barley is a long-day plant, thus a light period of 12-14 hours during the reproductive period is ideal.

Soil

Sandy loam to loamy sand soils of Indo-Gangetic plains having neutral to mild saline reaction and medium fertility are the most suitable. However, it may be grown on a variety of soil types, viz; saline, sodic and lighter soils.

Seed Treatment

• Seed treatment is very essential to control diseases and insect pests.
• Seed should be treated with Vitavax or Bavistin @2g/kg seed to control loose smut.
• The covered smut can be controlled by seed treatment with 1:1 mixture of Thiram + Bavistin or Vitavax @2.5g per Kg or 1gm Raxil/kg seed.
• Seed should be treated with 150 ml of Chloropyriphos (20EC) or 250 ml in 5 liters of water for 100 kg of seeds to avoid the loss due to termite attack.

Fertilizer Application

In irrigated areas, ½ N + full P and K at the time of sowing and remaining ½ N after the first irrigation. In rainfed conditions, full NPK should be applied as basal at the time of sowing. In case of Zn deficiency, apply ZnSO4 @20 kg/ha. Application of other micronutrients should be done on the basis of soil testing and deficiency systems.

Method of Sowing

Sowing with a seed-cum-fertilizer drill is the best method of sowing. Another traditional method of line sowing in some areas is dropping seeds with a chonga (a tube connected with a funnel-like structure behind the country plow) attached to a desi-plow is also popular. Dropping seeds in open furrows behind desi-plow had broadcasting are found to be inferior compared to line sowing with a seed drill. Soil should be made compact by planking or running a roller for better seed-soil contact.

Irrigation

Barley can be grown under irrigated, rainfed, and limited irrigation conditions. Generally, it requires 2-3 irrigations for a better yield. The malt barley requires 3 irrigations to ensure better yield, grain uniformity, and grain quality. Depending upon the water availability, irrigations should be given at suitable stages. In the dry areas of Rajasthan, the number of irrigations should be increased to 5-6.

Weed Management in Barley

1. For Broadleaf Weeds: Apply selective post-emergent herbicides such as MCPA or 2,4-D, which target broadleaf weeds without harming the barley crop. Apply these herbicides when the weeds are in the early growth stages for maximum effectiveness.
2. For Grassy Weeds: Use pre-emergent herbicides like Pendimethalin or triallate to control grassy weeds such as wild oats and foxtail. Apply these herbicides before the weeds emerge or during the early stages of barley growth to prevent competition.

Harvesting, Threshing and Storage

The barley crop gets ready for harvest by the end of March to the first fortnight of April. Since barley has a shattering character, it should be harvested when it ripens to avoid breaking of spikes due to dryness. Barley grain absorbs water from the atmosphere and should be stored in an appropriate dry space to avoid storage pest losses. For industrial purposes, choose an appropriate variety, sow and harvest timely with proper management.

Yield

Recent high-yielding varieties have a yield potential of 4-5 tonnes/ha. The yield of rainfed barley varies between 1.5-2.5 tonnes/ha. On average, a harvest index of 0.3 to 0.5 has been observed in Barley.