A Comprehensive Guide to Historiography: Methods, Theories, and Key Figures
Dialectics
1) According to Hegel, grasping the meaning of any event happens in terms of two direct opposites.
2) In order to understand the true and false, similarly good and bad. This method of analysis which is based on opposites is known as Dialectics.
3) In this method, a theory is proposed at the beginning, which is called the thesis. Then another theory is proposed, which is contrary to the thesis. It is called the antithesis. The interaction of these two opposing ideas leads to a new theory, called the synthesis. This process of arriving at the new thesis is called synthesis.
Michel Foucault’s Archaeology of Knowledge
Michel Foucault called his method the archaeology of knowledge.
1) Foucault drew attention to the fact that archaeology does not strive to reach the ultimate historical truth but attempts to explain various transitions in the past.
2) He felt that explaining the transition in history is more important than arranging historical events in chronological order.
3) Foucault supplemented his method of historical analysis by including unacknowledged areas such as psychological disorders, science of medicine, prison administration, etc. Hence this method is called Archaeology of knowledge.
Karl Marx’s Theory of Class Struggle
1) According to Karl Marx, history was not about abstract ideas, it was about living people.
2) Human relationships were shaped by the fundamental needs of people and their ownership as well as the nature of the prevalent means of production to meet those needs.
3) The accessibility of these means to different strata of society may not be equal.
4) This inequality causes a division of society into classes, leading to a class struggle.
5) The class that owns the means of production economically exploits the rest of the classes.
6) Human history, according to him, is the history of class struggle. Das Kapital, a treatise written by him, is one of the most referred books all over the world. This is the class theory of Karl Marx.
Four Characteristics of Modern Historiography
1) Its method is based on scientific principles. It begins with the formation of relevant questions.
2) These questions are anthropocentric, i.e., they are about the deeds of the members of societies of a particular period. History does not suggest any interrelation between divine and human deeds.
3) Answers to these questions are supported by reliable evidence.
4) History presents a graph of mankind’s journey with the help of past human deeds.
Leopold von Ranke’s Perspective of History
1) Leopold von Ranke of Berlin University criticized imaginative narration of history.
2) He emphasized information gathered through original documents.
3) He also stated that all types of documents associated with a historical event need to be examined with the greatest care.
4) He believed that with this method it was possible to reach the historical truth.
5) He spoke about the critical method of historical research. His articles are published in books entitled The Theory & Practice of History and The Secret of World History.
Orientalist Historiography
1) Many European scholars felt curious about the civilizations and countries of the East.
2) Some of these were scholars who felt admiration and respect for them; they were known as Orientalists.
3) The Orientalists studied similarities between Sanskrit and some of the European languages. They focused more on Vedic tradition and Sanskrit literature.
4) In 1784, Sir William Jones founded the Asiatic Society of Kolkata, which opened doors for researching ancient Indian literature and history.
5) According to another Orientalist, Friedrich Max Müller, Sanskrit was the most ancient of all Indo-European languages.
6) Friedrich Max Müller translated the Sanskrit text of Hitopadesh and also edited 50 volumes of The Sacred Books of the East.
7) Friedrich Max Müller compiled the Rigveda and also translated it into German.
Momentum for Regional History Writing
1) Nationalistic historiography helped in triggering the independence movement of the Indian people against the British.
2) In this aspect, the book The Indian War of Independence, 1857, written by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar is of great importance.
3) Nationalistic historiography provided momentum to the writing of regional histories too. As a result, the attention of historians was drawn to the geographic conditions and history of South Indian regions.
Marxist History
1) The concern for the means of production and industrial relations were at the center in the writings of Marxist historians.
2) Analyzing the impact of every social event of significance has remained the basic theme of Marxist historiography.
3) Marxist historians of India consisted of the study of transition within the caste system.
4) Some of them are Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi, Comrade Shripad Amrut Dange, Ram Sharan Sharma, and Comrade Sharad Patil.
5) Comrade Dange wrote a book Primitive Communism to Slavery representing Marxist historiography.
Contribution of Itihasacharya V.K. Rajwade to Historiography
1) Rajwade was well known for his writing in Marathi on varied subjects like history, linguistics, etymology, grammar, etc. He was of the firm opinion that we should write our own history.
2) He compiled and edited 22 volumes of Marathyanchya Itihasachi Sadhane. He wrote scholarly prefaces to each of the volumes.
3) He stated that history is an all-inclusive image of past societies. It does not include only the stories of political images, conspiracies, and wars for seizing power.
4) He also insisted on writing by only using authentic documentary sources.
5) V.K. Rajwade founded “Bharat Itihas Sanshodhak Mandal” in Pune on July 7, 1910, to facilitate historical research.
Importance of Studying the History of Technology
1) The history of technology helps in understanding the changes and their causes in the field of agriculture, agricultural production, commodity production, architecture, engineering, etc.
2) Scientific discoveries/inventions and technological advancement are mutually dependent on each other.
3) Knowledge of science and technology was very important at every step from the making of stone tools to agricultural production in the evolution of mankind.
4) Later, the advancement of science promoted the mechanization of production.
5) Therefore, it is necessary to know the history of technology in order to understand the development of mechanization and the mutual dependence between science and technology.
Co-relating Applied History with the Present
1) The visible and invisible relics of the past exist in the present.
2) We nurture some kind of curiosity and attraction towards them.
3) We wish to know more about the history of our past because they represent the creative thoughts and traditions of our ancestors, which is our heritage.
4) The history of our heritage links us with our origin. Applied history is concerned with the preservation and conservation of our heritage, making it accessible to the people.
5) Heritage management creates opportunities for employment.
6) It is useful to understand our present with the help of history and finding the right direction for the benefit of our future.
Objectives Fulfilled Through Heritage Projects
1) The local social structure and psychology of the local people, the challenges faced by them in the present situation, and their expectations can be surveyed in detail.
2) Due precautions can be taken to avoid hurting the sentiments of the local people.
3) Participation of the local people in the project can be facilitated.
4) A systematic plan can be designed to employ the local skills in a creative way and create better opportunities for livelihood.
Maratha Style of Painting
1) Maratha painting is an example of an art style. It was developed in the latter half of the 17th century C.E.
2) This style consists of colored paintings and they occur as murals and miniatures used in manuscripts.
3) Murals of Maratha style can be seen in the old wadas at places like Wai, Menavali, and Satara in Maharashtra.
4) The Maratha style was influenced by the Rajput and European styles of painting.
5) Paintings help us understand the times in which they were developed, such as lifestyle, attires, customs, etc.
Professional Opportunities in the Field of Arts
The opportunities for research available in the field of arts are:
1) Art history is an independent branch of knowledge where various opportunities are available in the field.
2) Art historians can work in the field of journalism.
3) They can also work as special experts to assess the exact value of an art object or to ensure that it is genuine.
4) Heritage management and cultural tourism are recently developed fields.
5) They can also find professional opportunities as experts in the fields of museum and archives management, library science and information technology, archaeological research, Indology, etc.
Role of Newspapers in the Indian Struggle for Independence
Print technology and newspapers were introduced in India after the British arrived. It became the first mass medium of circulating information and knowledge. The role of newspapers in the Indian struggle for independence can be explained through the following inferences:
1) The first Marathi newspaper, Darpan, published news regarding the accounts of expenditure from the administrative division of the East India Company and achievements of Raja Ram Mohan Roy in England. Such information led to nationalistic awareness necessary for the struggle for independence.
2) Besides printing map-illustrations of Asia and Europe in 1842 and 1851 respectively, the newspaper Dnyanoday also published the news of the installation of the telegraph and starting of railways. This proved important in planning the national movement for independence. It also printed the news of the Indian War of Independence, 1857.
3) Other newspapers like Kesari and Maratha spoke about social and political issues of the pre-independence period. Kesari began to publish articles about nationwide situations, books in native languages, and politics in England. Thus, the newspaper accelerated the struggle for independence.
Professional Opportunities in Mass Media
1) Many professional opportunities are available in mass media such as newspaper journalists, reporters and columnists, editors, historians, etc.
2) Newspaper reporters compare current affairs with events in the past to provide better insight to the reader.
3) Supplements and special issues over and above regular editions are published to commemorate occasions like the 100th year of World War I (2014) and the completion of seventy-five years of the Quit India Movement (2017). On such occasions, newspapers highlight the events through columns, articles, editorials, reviews, etc.
4) Historians are invited on radio and TV programs as experts on occasions such as birth and death anniversaries of national leaders and historical events.
5) For history-based TV shows, experts of history are required to maintain accuracy for the presentation of the environment, outfits, weaponry, lifestyles, lingual expressions, etc.
6) Some parts of history programs are actually enacted by actors, such as characters of heroic men and women, sportsmen, army chiefs, etc.
Need for Entertainment
1) Healthy entertainment of excellent quality is essential for the healthy growth of one’s personality.
2) Entertainment keeps our minds lively and fresh.
3) It makes us feel physically more energetic and gives more work efficiency.
4) Pursuing hobbies and games helps in the overall personality development of an individual.
Marathi Theatre
1) Previously, the Bhosale rulers of Tanjore had patronized drama. Some of them had written a few plays and also translated Sanskrit plays.
2) The 19th century witnessed a development of Marathi theatre. Vishnudas Bhave, the father of Marathi theatre, initiated historical, mythological, and farcical plays.
3) Sitaswayamvar was the first play presented by him.
4) In the era of spontaneous dialogue delivery when no written script existed, V.J. Kirtane was the first author to write the script of Thorale Madhavrao Peshwa in 1861.
5) Musical Marathi theatre evolved with the introduction of classical khyal music. Balkrishnabuva Ichalkaranjikar, Ustad Alladiya Khan, Ustad Abdul Karim Khan, and Ustad Rahimat Khan developed a taste for classical music amongst Marathi audiences.
6) The following plays are also important in the history of Marathi theatre: Sangeet Manapaman, Ekach Pyala, Raygadala Jevha Jag Yete, Ithe Oshalala Mrityu, Ghashiram Kotwal, etc.
Toys and Festivals
1) Toys can throw light on history and technological development.
2) We get a glimpse of religious and cultural traditions.
3) As a part of traditional Diwali celebrations in Maharashtra, model forts are made.
4) Clay images of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and his soldiers are placed on these model forts.
5) This tradition keeps the memory alive of the important role of forts in the history of Maharashtra.
Importance of Sports
1) To play games is very important for us.
2) It enables us to overcome pain and worries.
3) Games help us to relax and refresh our minds.
4) Games, which involve a lot of physical action, are good exercise.
5) It helps in building a tenacious and strong body.
6) Playing games also helps us in developing courage, determination, and sportsmanship.
7) Games that require collective participation help us to develop readiness to cooperate, team spirit, and leadership qualities.
Agro-tourism
1) Agro-tourism, which is also known as agritourism, is rapidly developing. It is especially meant for the urban population, which has very little exposure to rural life and agriculture.
2) Now, Indian farmers are also visiting faraway places like agricultural research centers, agricultural universities, and countries like Israel where experimentation in advanced technology of agriculture is being done.
Increased Travel to and from India
1) Nowadays, it has become easier to travel because of the easy availability of a number of options for railway, marine, and air transport.
2) Marine transport has linked the coastal regions.
3) There is a trans-European railway route.
4) Aviation has brought the entire world closer.
5) Because of the economic liberalization policy of the Indian government, the number of people traveling back and forth from India has increased considerably.
6) They include people traveling for studies, relaxation, sightseeing, and professional assignments (meetings and agreements, etc.), as well as for shooting films, etc.
Preservation of Historical Heritage Sites
1) It is important to take a few primary precautions in order to preserve historical heritage sites.
2) It is essential that a few things should be avoided at any instance, for example, vandalizing or defacing the heritage monuments and sites.
3) In order to avoid it, everybody should refrain from activities like writing on walls or carving on trees, and painting ancient monuments in garish colors. The lack of good amenities in the precincts of the heritage sites causes filthiness.
Crucial Issues in the Development of Tourism
1) The crucial issue in the development of tourism is providing proper guidance to national and international tourists about various aspects of the actual travel, proper social conduct during the tour, and during their stay at the destination places.
2) Giving priority to ensuring safe transport and security facilities for the tourists, amenities of a reasonably good standard, availability of good accommodation, and good washroom facilities on the travel routes is of great significance in promoting tourism.
3) It is important to pay special attention to the special needs of handicapped tourists.
4) It is important to take primary precautions in order to preserve the historical heritage sites, e.g., vandalizing or defacing the heritage monuments and sites.
5) In order to avoid it, everybody should refrain from writing on walls or carving on trees, and painting ancient monuments in garish colors. The lack of good amenities in the precincts of the heritage sites, etc. should be taken care of.
Provisions Made for Minorities by the Government
?
The indian Constitution has made several provisions for the protection of minorities
I) different policies about providing opportunities are made for education and employment.ii) prohibition of discrimination on the basis of caste, religion, race, language and region.iii) protection of their right to equality, freedom, right against exploitation, cultural and educational rights.
Policy of reservation of seats ?
Policy of reservation of seats are for those sections of society who have been deprived of the opportunities for education and employment for a long period. Following these are the efforts which have been made to improve their conditions:I) to provide opportunities for education and employment.ii) in order to protect these right some seats are reserved in the educational institutions and in government services for scheduled caste and scheduled tribes.iii)there is also a provision of reservation of seats for other backwards classes
What are the effects of reducing the voting age from 21years to 18 write a note : right to vote ?
The following are the effects of reducing the voting age from 21years to 18 years. I) it provides an opportunity of political participation to the younger generation in india.ii) this provision has made india the largest democratic nation in the world.iii)this has increased the number of voter as compared to other democratic nations.iv)this effect has not only brought quantitative but qualitative participation of young voters.
Which decision of the court has resulted in protection of honour and dignity of women?
Taking into consideration the problems of women several policies have been adopted at national and international level to remove illiteracy among women and to make available opportunities for their development.ii) right to have equal share in the property of father and husband, dowry prohibition act, act against sexual harassments, domestic violence prohibition act are some important provision provisions which created favourable provision for the protection of freedom of women.ii) the representation of women is raised to 50℅in several states including Maharashtra.iii) a national commission for women has been established. Similar commission also exist at state level.iv) the act for the protection of women against domestic violence, which protects the prestige and self esteem of women and rejects traditional forms of domination and authoritarianism.
Election Commission lays down the code of conduct during elections?
True:I) to ensure free and fair elections in India, code