A Comprehensive Guide to English Grammar and Linguistics
Introduction to Lexis
Richness, Flexibility, and Complexity
Word-Formation Concepts
- Word (Orthography, Phonology)
- Lexeme
- Morpheme (Free, Bound, Grammatical Function, Lexical Function)
Morphological Processes
- Affixation
- Clipping
- Conversion
- Back-Formation
- Blending
- Eponymy
- Acronymy
Conclusion
Introduction to the Expression of Place
- At-Type Prepositions
- On-Type Prepositions
- In-Type Prepositions
Overlap Between Types of Prepositions
- At vs. In
- At vs. To
- On vs. In
Prepositions Indicating Position
Expression of Direction
Expression of Distance
Conclusion
Introduction to Auxiliary Verbs
Primary Auxiliaries
- Do
- Be
- Have
Modal Verbs
- Will
- Shall
- Would
- Should
- Can
- Could
- May
- Might
- Must
- Have to
- Need
- Dare
- Used to
Characteristics of Modal Verbs
Conclusion
Introduction to Direct Speech
Position of Reporting Clauses
Omission of Reporting Clauses
Functions of Reporting Clauses
Indirect Speech
- Tense
- Other Changes (Pronouns, Adverbs, Determiners)
- Ways of Speaking in Reported Speech: Statements, Questions, Orders, Suggestions, Exclamations
- Verbs and Expressions Introducing Reported Speech
- Difference Between “Say” and “Tell”
- Voice in Reporting Clauses
Conclusion
Introduction to American Literature
Historical Background
American Humorism
- Mark Twain and His Works
Cosmopolitanism
- Henry James and His Works
The English Language in the World
Differences Between American and British English
- Vocabulary
- Spelling
- Grammar
- Pronunciation
English Language in Spain
Anglicisms in Spanish
Conclusion
Introduction to British Culture and Identity
Who are the British?
- Scots
- Welsh
- Irish
- English
America: The Melting Pot
- American Blacks and Whites
- Spanish Heritage
- American Indians
Stereotypes and Daily Life
- UK
- USA
Music and Social Background
- Social Influence of Music
- Jazz
Conclusion
Functions of the Genitive Case
Attributive Function
When the genitive precedes a headword, there are two groups:
- Specifying Genitive: The noun refers to a particular person or thing (e.g., Mary’s car).
- Classifying Genitive: The noun denotes the class to which the thing or person denoted by the headword belongs (e.g., queen’s royal pardon).
Independent Function
The genitive is used without a headword in three ways:
- Elliptic: Headword omitted because it occurs in the immediate context (e.g., She placed her hat next to the queen’s).
- Double: Combining the ‘s genitive (e.g., She has been a friend of Pablo’s since childhood).
- Local: The genitive of proper names, relationships, and tradesmen’s designations are used as indicators of locality. Uses of the local genitive include:
- Indicating an institution of some kind (e.g., He was vicar at St. Andrew’s).
- Indicating a shop (e.g., the dressmaker’s).
- Indicating a person’s house (e.g., at Mark’s).
Quirk also mentions the group genitive, where the -s suffix is added to the last element of a noun phrase consisting of a postmodified noun head (e.g., the keys of the palace’s guardian).
Conclusion
Introduction to the Possessive in English
The possessive case plays a relevant role in the curriculum, dealing with grammatical aspects and teaching competence in linguistic communication. This concept highlights the importance of speech in language.
Introduction to the Possessive
There are different ways to express possession:
- Genitive Case: Two variants: -‘s genitive and of genitive.
- Possessive Pronouns
- Verbs Denoting Possession: (e.g., have to, own)
The most common expression of possession is the genitive or possessive form. Its origin lies in Old English, which had different genitive endings (-s, -e, -n, -a, -ena). In Middle English, inflectional endings were lost, leaving only the -s ending. Today, we use this ending along with the preposition of and the uninflected form of the noun.
Meaning of the Genitive
The relationship between the genitive and its headword is unlimited. According to Quirk, common meanings include:
- Possessive Genitive: The headword denotes an object, and the genitive may denote the possessor (e.g., king’s crown).
- Subjective Genitive: The headword denotes an action, and the genitive denotes the agent (e.g., King’s speech).
- Genitive of Origin: (e.g., PM’s letter)
- Objective Genitive: The genitive indicates the object or receiver of the action (e.g., prince’s support). The objective genitive is unusual, and the of-construction is more common (e.g., support of the royalty).
The of-construction of the genitive is more frequent when the genitive is interpreted as possessive (e.g., John’s team).
- Descriptive Genitive: (e.g., a winter’s night)
The -‘s and -of Genitive
The genitive has two forms:
- Inflected Genitive: Apostrophe + ‘s suffix or apostrophe only after the noun (e.g., Mark’s guitar, James’ car).
- Periphrastic Genitive: Consists of the modifier noun phrase in a prepositional phrase after the head noun phrase (e.g., car of the king).
Forms of the -‘s Genitive
- Singular Nouns: Apostrophe plus ‘s (e.g., Tom’s songs).
- Names Ending in -s: Only the apostrophe (e.g., James’ car).
- Plural Nouns Ending in -s: Only add an apostrophe and no phonetic addition (e.g., soldiers’ horses). The genitive plural of these words can be confused with the singular (e.g., the horses of the soldiers).
- Plural Nouns Not Ending in -s: Very few, same suffix as in the singular (e.g., men’s room).
Pronunciation
The rules for pronouncing the -‘s genitive are identical to those for pronouncing the -s suffix in the plural of nouns.
- /z/: With words ending in vowel sounds or voiced consonants except [z], [v], [ð] (e.g., boy’s).
- /s/: With words ending in voiceless consonants except [s], [ʃ], [tʃ] (e.g., Smith’s).
- /ɪz/: With words ending in [s], [z], [ʒ], [ʃ], [tʃ], [dʒ] (e.g., judge’s).
The effect of this syncretism is that /bɔɪz/ can correspond to boys, boy’s, and boys’. Quirk notes that there are two written forms (with apostrophe plus -s and with apostrophe only) and four spoken forms: /ɪz/, /z/, /s/, and /∅/.
The of-Genitive vs. -‘s Genitive
The of-genitive is used with nouns denoting:
- Possession followed by a phrase or clause (e.g., The servant found traces of rats).
- Inanimate nouns (e.g., walls of the palace).
- Lower animals (e.g., The king hates the fur of rats).
- When the genitive may be confused with the plural (e.g., her grandson’s pets).
- With adjectives with plural value (e.g., lifestyle of the rich).
- Partitive expressions (e.g., She spends part of the week).
The use of the of-combination, which appeared in the 12th century, is due to French influence.
The -‘s genitive is used for:
- Names of relations (e.g., son’s birthday).
- Temporal nouns (e.g., two minutes’ drive).
- Locative nouns (e.g., at St. Paul’s).
- Higher animals (e.g., horse’s riding tackle).
- Personal names (e.g., Liza’s garden).
- Collective nouns (e.g., Celta Vigo’s titles).
- Geographical names (e.g., Vigo’s stadium).
- Fixed expressions.
Introduction to the United States
The United States is a federal republic of 50 states and the federal district of Columbia, with Washington, D.C. as its capital. It has 50 state governments and a federal government. The nation’s origin lies in the Declaration of Independence, adopted by the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. The USA was officially established with the Constitution of 1787. Puerto Rico is an associated state.
The Constitution
The US Constitution is the oldest written national constitution in use and has served as a model for other countries. It outlines the principles that govern the states, how the government is formed, and the rights of states and individuals. Each state also has its own constitution, but all must abide by the federal one. State constitutions may differ in terms of education, health, property, and crime.
In 1787, 55 delegates drafted the Constitution, which took effect after being ratified by 9 of the 13 original states. On March 4, 1789, the government under the Constitution began operating. The Bill of Rights, comprising the first ten amendments, was adopted between 1789 and 1791. By December 1791, the Bill of Rights became an integral part of the Constitution, guaranteeing freedoms of religion, speech, press, and trial by jury.
The Constitution consists of 7 articles and 27 amendments. Congress can initiate the amendment process with the approval of three-fourths of the states. An example is the Equal Rights Amendment, proposed in 1923 to ensure sex equality, which has not yet been ratified.
Territorial Organization
The US has three levels of government: local, state, and federal. The federal government is divided into three branches: the presidency, Congress, and the Supreme Court. National competence and decision-making are limited by the US Constitution.
In every state, the governor holds the highest office. Each state is divided into counties, with an average of 62 counties per state. Local government within a county is centered in a city or town, known as the county seat, and is headed by a mayor elected by popular vote.
Threefold Division of Powers
- Legislative Branch (Congress): The law-making body with two levels of competence: federal and state. The federal Congress is bicameral, consisting of:
- House of Representatives: 435 members, responsible for law-making, collecting taxes, common defense, general welfare, regulating commerce, and declaring war. It can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds majority.
- Senate: 100 senators representing the states. It confirms or rejects presidential appointments, ratifies treaties, and tries impeachment cases.
- Executive Power: Four levels of competence:
- Federal: Represented by the president, responsible for defense, foreign affairs, printing money, trade, and human rights.
- State: Represented by the governor.
- Local: Represented by the mayor.
- Judicial Power:
- Federal Courts: Handle cases involving federal law and the Constitution.
- State Courts: Handle cases involving state laws.
Two federal law enforcement agencies, the FBI and the FPS, operate nationwide. The Supreme Court is the highest court in the federal system, responsible for interpreting the Constitution, ensuring its respect, and resolving disputes between states.
Political Parties
- Republican Party: Founded in 1854, the first Republican president was Abraham Lincoln. It promotes private enterprise with minimal state intervention in the economy and holds conservative views. It enjoys support in rural and suburban regions.
- Democratic Party: Developed in the early 19th century from the Anti-Federalist Party led by Thomas Jefferson. It draws support mainly from Irish Americans, Catholics, labor unions, and African Americans.
Electoral System
The US president is elected every four years on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November of a leap year and takes office at noon on January 20. The president is chosen indirectly through an electoral college system. Voters cast ballots for electors representing each state. These electors are typically pledged to support a specific candidate nominated by their party before the election.
The candidate who wins the popular vote in a state generally receives all of that state’s electoral votes. The number of electors for each state is equal to the number of senators (always two) plus the number of representatives (proportional to the state’s population). Any American citizen over the age of 18 has the right to vote.