A Comparison of Ethical Theories: From Aristotle to Utilitarianism
Ethical Theories: A Comparative Overview
Aristotle: Ethics of Happiness
Aristotle believed that every activity has a purpose. He argued that some human activities are more important than others, creating a hierarchy of goals. The ultimate goal, according to Aristotle, is happiness (eudaimonia).
Why happiness? Aristotle believed that everyone seeks happiness for its own sake, while other things are sought as a means to achieve happiness. However, there is no universal agreement on what constitutes happiness. Some identify it with pleasure, others with honor or wealth. Aristotle rejected these views, arguing that they confuse means with ends.
What makes a human being happy? Aristotle believed that happiness lies in self-realization, fulfilling one’s proper role. However, this role is complex and varies depending on factors like age, sex, social status, and profession. Fulfilling these roles does not guarantee happiness because they are not the proper role of a human being as such.
Aristotle identified three functions of the human soul: vegetative, sensitive, and rational. The latter two are the most important. The sensitive function allows the rational part of the soul to control impulses and desires. The rational function, engaged in intellectual activity and wisdom, is the only one that brings true happiness. According to Aristotle, happiness is achieved through the pursuit of wisdom, but he believed that not everyone (excluding women, slaves, and those engaged in manual labor) could access this contemplative life.
Epicurus: Ethics of Pleasure
Epicurus was a hedonist, believing that the goal of life is the enjoyment of pleasure. He believed that everything is composed of matter, specifically atoms moving in empty space. He rejected the supernatural and superstitions, believing they cause fear and unhappiness.
How can one live happily? Epicurus advocated for the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. However, he emphasized the importance of intelligence in guiding this pursuit. He distinguished between three types of pleasures:
- Natural and necessary: (e.g., food, drink) These should be enjoyed intelligently.
- Natural and unnecessary: (e.g., erotic pleasures) These should be enjoyed in moderation.
- Unnatural and unnecessary: (e.g., smoking) These should be avoided to prevent dependence.
By living according to these principles, Epicurus believed one could achieve ataraxia (freedom from disturbance) and autarchy (self-sufficiency).
Immanuel Kant: Ethics of Duty
Kant’s ethics are rooted in Enlightenment ideals, emphasizing the autonomy of reason and the idea of progress. He believed that reason could lead to a society free from war and violence.
What is the basis of ethics? Kant argued for the importance of educating individuals to be autonomous and free from political and religious oppression. Thinking for oneself is essential for freedom and moral development. He introduced the concept of moral autonomy, where individuals determine their own moral values rather than obeying external commands, even from God. This contrasts with heteronomy, which Kant considered incompatible with human dignity.
Kant distinguished between acting from duty (autonomously) and acting in accordance with duty (heteronomously). Acting morally involves complying with the moral law out of respect for the law itself. The morality of an action is determined by the will behind it.
Imperatives are commands. The moral law is expressed in the categorical imperative. Kant formulated two key imperatives:
- 1st Imperative: “Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end.” This emphasizes the inherent dignity of all persons.
- 2nd Imperative: “Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.” This highlights the universal nature of morality.
The Stoics: Ethics of Living in Accordance with Nature
Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium, emphasized practical philosophy. The Stoics viewed the universe as material, governed by a divine logos (reason). They believed in fate and advocated for accepting one’s destiny and living in accordance with nature and reason.
This involved achieving ataraxia (tranquility) and apathy (indifference to external factors). This allowed for inner freedom and self-sufficiency. The Stoics were cosmopolitans, believing in the universal brotherhood of humanity and advocating for philanthropy (love for all human beings).
Utilitarianism: Ethics of Utility
Utilitarianism, a 19th-century ethical theory, builds upon the ideas of David Hume. It denies that moral rules are based on reason alone, arguing that they depend on feelings. Actions that produce happiness are considered good, while those that produce unhappiness are considered bad.
What behaviors are considered good? Utilitarians believe that behaviors that benefit others are approved of and considered good, while those that harm others are disapproved of and considered bad. This is based on a feeling of sympathy for others and humanity as a whole.
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, key figures in utilitarianism, aimed to make morality a science based on measurable facts. They focused on pleasure and pain as the measurable factors in moral life, arguing that human behavior is driven by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain.
Dialogical Ethics
Dialogical ethics challenges the individualism of Kantian ethics, proposing that the universality of moral law is achieved through agreement on ethical principles. It emphasizes the importance of rational dialogue to establish a minimum set of universal values, particularly those related to justice.
This approach seeks to achieve a balance between a minimum level of justice (expressed through universal values like human rights) and maximum individual happiness. The foundation of moral norms lies in ethical consensus reached through dialogue.