A Brief History of Europe: From Ancient Rome to the 20th Century
Ancient Rome
Key Events in Roman History
494 BC: Plebeians threatened to leave the empire and create an independent state.
493 BC: Latin League formed.
450 BC: “Laws of the Twelve Tables” established (beneficial for Plebeians).
264-241 BC: First Punic War
218-201 BC: Second Punic War
212 AD: Caracalla granted global citizenship to all those living under the Roman Empire.
149-146 BC: Third Punic War
133 BC: Two factions emerged in the Senate: Optimates and Populares.
133-27 BC: Roman Republic Civil Wars – Roman Revolution
44 BC: Julius Caesar assassinated.
27 BC: Octavian replaced Caesar.
0 AD: Birth of Jesus
14 AD: Death of Augustus
Roman Emperors
69 AD: Vespasian
79-81 AD: Titus
81-96 AD: Domitian
96-98 AD: Nerva
98-117 AD: Trajan
117-138 AD: Hadrian
138-161 AD: Antoninus Pius
161-180 AD: Marcus Aurelius
180-193 AD: Commodus, Pertinax
193-211 AD: Severus
476 AD: Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Medieval and Modern Europe
Key Events and Developments
962-1806: Holy Roman Empire
1291-1918: Habsburg Houses
1420-1527: Spread of the Renaissance + Pope Martin V moved to Rome.
1450: Kings and viceroys led Christendom.
1453: Fall of the Eastern Roman Empire + Ottomans captured Constantinople.
1460: Rise of National Sentiment in Western Europe
1480: Louis XI established a strong state in France + Catholic Monarchs established a strong state in Spain.
1492: Columbus discovered America.
1494: Invasion of Italy by France + Creation of the Holy League
1516: Charles of Habsburg became King of Spain.
1517: Martin Luther published his Ninety-Five Theses, sparking the Protestant Reformation.
1527: Sack of Rome by the Habsburgs
1529: Ottomans besieged Vienna.
1530: John Calvin began the Reformed tradition of Protestantism.
1536: Unilateral Regulation between Francis I and the Ottomans
1555: Peace of Augsburg
1598: Edict of Nantes
1618-1648: Thirty Years’ War or Religious Wars
1624-1642: Cardinal Richelieu’s influence in France
1648: Peace of Westphalia
1661-1714: Reign of Louis XIV in France
1688: King James II replaced by William of Orange – Glorious Revolution (UK)
1700: Bourbons replaced Habsburgs in Spain.
1714: Treaty of Utrecht
1740: Death of Emperor Charles VI – Holy Roman Empire
1763: British took control of India.
1768-74: Russo-Turkish War
1798: French Revolution
1804-1814: First French Empire – Napoleon
1809: Russia acquired Finland.
1812: Spanish Constitution
1814: Defeat of Napoleon + First Treaty of Paris + Congress of Vienna (-1815)
1815: Second Treaty of Paris
1815-1845: Period of Peace between great powers
1818: Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
1818-1845: Declaration of Aachen
1820: French intervention in Spain + Concert of Europe + Revolution in Italy
1822: Congress of Verona
1823: Monroe Doctrine
1824: Charles X succeeded his brother (France)
1825: Death of Tsar Alexander
1827: Treaty of London
1829: Greece won independence from the Ottoman Empire + Dismissal of liberal ministers in France
1830: Treaty of Adrianople & London + Revolution in Brussels (Belgium independence) + French Revolution
1830-1848: European Economic Growth
1830-1870: Second phase of the Industrial Revolution
1832: Egypt vs. Ottoman Empire + UK Reform Bill
1839-42: Opium War
1840-1848: Administration of Guizot (France)
1842: Treaty of Nanking – China opened to trade with France & UK – Opium War
1845-1871: Revolutionary Nationalism
1847: Economic Crisis (France)
1848: Discontent with the Metternich System + Period of Revolutions (France > Austria > …) + German Confederation
1849: Hungarian Revolution – Independence
1851: Coup d’état in France
1852: Napoleon III became French Emperor.
1853-1856: Crimean War
1855: Tsar Alexander II
1856: Third Treaty of Paris
1857: Treaty of Tientsin – China opened to trade with France & UK – Opium War
1859: Unification of Romania
1861: Unification of Italy
1862: Otto von Bismarck became Minister-President of Prussia.
1863: Danish War + Prince George of Denmark elected King of Greece + Polish Rebellion
1864: Prussia & Austria vs. Denmark for the control of the Duchies
1865: Convention of Gastein + Venetia incorporated into Italy
1866: Seven Weeks’ War + Treaty of Prague + North German Confederation
1867: Reform Bill (UK) + Dominion of Canada created + Meiji Restoration in Japan
1868: Revolution in Spain
1869: UK attacked Ireland + Suez Canal opened by France
1870-1890: Bismarck’s domination in Germany
1870: France declared war on Germany (Franco-Prussian War) + Scramble for Africa + Inclusion of Papal States & Rome into Italy
1871: Siege of Paris (by Prussia) + German Empire proclaimed + Treaty of Frankfurt
1872-End of Century: Period of relative peace in Europe
1873: Treaty of Frankfurt + Three Emperors’ League
1875: Russo-Turkish War + France recovered from the Franco-Prussian War
1877: Treaty of San Stefano – Creation of Bulgaria + Reinsurance Treaty
1878: Congress of Berlin
1879: Dual Alliance (Austria-Hungary & Germany)
1881: France conquered Tunis.
1882: Triple Alliance (Austria-Hungary, Germany & Italy)
1885: Serbo-Bulgarian War
1884: Berlin Conference
1890-1904: Readjustment and realignment of European powers
1890: Kaiser Wilhelm II’s “Weltpolitik” + New Imperialism
1892: Franco-Russian Alliance
1894-95: Sino-Japanese War (Japan vs. China) – Japan acquired Taiwan
1899-1901: Boxer Rebellion (China against foreigners)
1900: International system based on economy and strategy
1902: Secret Franco-Italian alliance
1903: Coup d’état in Belgrade
1904-1914: Rivalry between two groups of European powers
1904-1905: Russo-Japanese War
1905: First Moroccan Crisis
1906: Algeciras Conference
1907: UK, Russia & France formed the Triple Entente.
1908: Bosnian Annexation Crisis
1911: French troops in Fez (Morocco) – Second Moroccan Crisis
1912: First Balkan War
1913: Second Balkan War
1914-1918: World War I
World War I: A Timeline
1914:
- Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated by a Serbian nationalist.
- Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia.
- Russia mobilized against Austria-Hungary and Germany (stopped in the East).
- Germany invaded Luxembourg & Belgium (neutral countries).
- Great Britain declared war on Germany.
- Germany declared war on Russia.
- Schlieffen Plan – Battle of Marne
- Front stabilized from the Baltic Sea to Romania after the Battle of Tannenberg.
1915:
- Italy joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria-Hungary.
- Serbia invaded.
- Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers.
- Central Powers achieved victories in the East.
1916:
- Germany attacked Verdun.
- Austria-Hungary fought against Italy.
- Italy declared war on Germany.
- Romania joined the Entente Powers.
- Battle of Jutland – naval battle between Germany and Great Britain.
- In the Middle East, Arabs revolted against the Ottomans and captured Jerusalem & Baghdad.
- Secret Sykes-Picot Agreement
1917:
- The United States entered the war and declared war on Germany due to unrestricted submarine warfare.
- Revolutions in Russia:
- March Revolution: Tsar Nicholas II abdicated.
- October Revolution: Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power. Russia withdrew from World War I and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
- Greece declared war on the Central Powers.
1918:
- U.S. President Woodrow Wilson issued his Fourteen Points.
- Germany signed a treaty with Romania.
- Germany launched a final spring offensive in the West, getting close to Paris.
- Between September and November, Germany was pushed back to its territory and requested an armistice.
- Austria-Hungary dissolved.
1918: End of the House of Habsburg
1919: Treaty of Versailles – Technical Committees, Supreme Council, Big Four
- League of Nations established.
- Ottoman Empire dissolved, replaced by the Republic of Turkey.
- Austria-Hungary divided into numerous states, including Czechoslovakia.
- Independent states emerged: Arab States, Palestine, Iraq, Syria, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland.
The Renaissance and the Rise of the Modern State System
15th-18th Centuries: The Renaissance
Mid-15th Century: Emergence of sovereign independent states
1815-1830: The Restoration
17th Century: New concept of International Law developed