20th Century Turning Points: Revolutions, Depression, and Dictatorships
The Tsarist Autocracy and Russian Society
In the early twentieth century, the Russian Empire survived under monarchical absolutism, known as the Tsarist autocracy.
Characteristics of Tsarist Rule
The Tsar ruled by decree, was not subject to any constitution, and did not have to answer to a parliament. Control of the Empire was assured by the bureaucracy, the army, and the Orthodox Church.
Economic and Social Structure
Agriculture was the main economic activity. Land was concentrated in the hands of a few aristocratic landowners, while the majority of the population were peasants, often subjected to a form of bondage.
Rise of Revolutionary Movements
Industrialization had begun in some cities, creating a large proletariat. Marxism spread among the workers, leading to the founding of the Russian Social Democratic Party. This party later separated into the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, advocated for the necessity of a social revolution.
The Russian Revolutions of 1917
Causes of the February Revolution
Russia’s involvement in the First World War created the conditions for a revolutionary explosion. Military disasters and declines in production, exacerbated by the mobilization of millions of farmers, led to widespread hunger and unrest.
The Fall of the Tsar
Unrest spread among workers and peasants, and the population began to organize themselves into soviets (councils). In February 1917, revolution broke out in St. Petersburg, causing the fall of Tsar Nicholas II and his government. Power passed to a provisional government, transforming Russia into a democratic republic.
The October Revolution
The slow pace of land reform and the provisional government’s decision to maintain Russia at war increased popular discontent and the influence of the Bolsheviks, who sought to establish socialism.
The Soviet State System
In the Soviet state system, the state and the party were fully identified, and the constitutions were not democratically elected.
Global Economic Crisis and Recovery
The Stock Market Crash of 1929
On October 24, 1929, known as Black Thursday, a large wave of selling hit the market. The massive supply of shares caused their value to fall sharply, resulting in the stock market crash of 1929. Many investors were ruined, and people flocked to banks to withdraw their money, forcing many institutions to close. The crash precipitated the bankruptcy of numerous banks.
The Great Depression
In the following years, a widespread economic recession, known as the Great Depression, took hold. Production decreased, many factories closed, and unemployment soared. Originating in the United States, the crisis quickly spread across the world.
Roosevelt’s New Deal Policies
In 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt won the election, proposing a program for national economic recovery called the New Deal. This program advocated for state intervention to revive the economy, help businesses, and destroy accumulated agricultural stocks.
Consequences of the New Deal
The New Deal proposed a new schema for economic change, including:
- Helping businesses and investing in public works.
- Implementing control of banks.
- Boosting the U.S. economy.
US Global Economic Position
The U.S. became a world power due to its high agricultural production, international competitiveness, and high economic and industrial output.
Decolonization Movements
Causes of Colonial Emancipation
The causes of the emancipation movement in the colonies included:
- The desire for independence and rising nationalist movements.
- Diminished prestige of colonial powers.
- International opinion favoring decolonization.
- Support for decolonization from the two great powers (US and USSR).
Post-Decolonization Challenges
After decolonization, countries faced significant territorial, political, and economic problems:
- Economically: Countries remained poor and dependent on wealthy nations.
- Politically: Many newly independent states still operated under dictatorships.
Rise of Totalitarianism: Nazi Germany
Hitler’s Ascent to Power
Adolf Hitler founded the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party) and was chosen as its leader. The Reichstag fire served as a pretext to accuse the Communists, helping Hitler consolidate power.
Features of the Nazi Regime
The main features of the Nazi regime included:
- It was a dictatorship.
- It operated as a single-party state.
- It maintained a single, controlled union.
- It exerted strict control over the youth.