20th Century Thought: Marx, Nietzsche, Freud, and Darwin’s Impact
20th Century Mentality: Marx, Nietzsche, Freud, Darwin
The 20th century saw a significant shift in mentality, largely influenced by the works of Marx, Nietzsche, Freud, and Darwin. While differences existed, a consensus emerged, primarily criticizing the prevailing ideas of modernity. Each thinker explored hidden aspects of human existence: Marx examined economic forces, Freud delved into the unconscious, and Nietzsche questioned established values. Darwin’s theory of evolution challenged traditional views of human nature, suggesting a purely coincidental origin and a shared ancestry with primates. This undermined the theological concept of humans being created in God’s image.
Marx argued against a rational world, highlighting a history of economic exploitation and class struggle between masters and slaves, feudal lords and serfs, and capitalists and the proletariat. He envisioned a proletarian revolution leading to a classless society without private property.
Nietzsche critiqued Western history, claiming its values had strayed from natural instincts. He believed that original virtues like strength and pride (as seen in ancient Greek aristocracy) were destroyed by Plato, Socrates, and Christianity, which introduced a new world of ideas and morality. Nietzsche advocated for overcoming the ‘death of God’ to create the ‘superman,’ embracing vitality and reclaiming lost values.
Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind over the conscious. He likened the mind to an iceberg, with the conscious being the visible tip and the unconscious the vast, hidden mass. Freud linked libido and sexual drives to the unconscious, suggesting that repressed desires could lead to neurosis and mental illness. He viewed sexuality as a lifelong development, with childhood experiences being particularly formative, and employed psychoanalysis to address issues like the Oedipus complex.
Despite their differences, these thinkers shared a common thread: the world is inherently a place of conflict. They sought to explain the world through the lens of economic power, determination, and the forces of the unconscious.
Marxism’s Global Impact
Marxism exerted a profound political influence, aiming not only to interpret the world but to change it through social revolution. This led to the formation of the International Workingmen’s Association (also known as the First International), which housed two main factions: Marx’s socialist faction and Bakunin’s anarchist faction. Later, German socialist leader Kautsky advocated for a gradual, non-violent transition from capitalism to socialism, leading to the Second International and the rise of democratic socialism. Lenin, opposing this approach, spearheaded the Russian Revolution and established the Third International (Communist), championing revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat. This split led to the separation of socialists and communists, with communism later gaining traction in countries like China, Cuba, Vietnam, and the USSR.
Marx’s theories transformed utopian socialism into scientific socialism (communism), anarchism (anarchist communism), and reformist socialism (social democracy). Marxism also significantly impacted philosophy, with figures like Lukács promoting historical materialism and Lenin developing theories of revolution. The Frankfurt School further advanced Marxist theory, particularly in response to the rise of Nazism and fascism. Marxism’s influence extended to other domains, including art, culture, literature, music, and film.