20th-Century Spanish-American & Spanish Literature: Realism to the Boom

Posted on Sep 25, 2024 in Latin

Novelistic Trends in the Early 20th Century: Realism and Regionalism

The novelistic genre emerged relatively late in Spanish America. In 1816, the Mexican publication El Periquillo Sarniento by José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi is considered the first novel of its kind. Romantic novels such as María by the Colombian Jorge Isaacs and Amalia by the Argentine José Mármol followed. These works began to showcase Hispanic American nature as a central theme. Modernist approaches resulted in two novelistic trends: one focused on artistic and aesthetically refined novels, and another committed to representing American reality, which produced realistic novels.

The First Half of the 20th Century

Until the 1920s, the novel in Spanish America continued to follow Spanish traditions, deepening its exploration of two main themes: socio-political problems and the portrayal of the land.

Novels of Socio-Political Problems

The immense natural resources of Latin America, exploited by foreign powers, along with underpaid workers, impoverished indigenous populations, and dictators emerging from the ruling oligarchy, provided inexhaustible sources of inspiration for novelists. An omniscient narrator typically presented the facts with fidelity but did not intervene in the narrative. Two main aspects emerged within this trend:

Novels of the Mexican Revolution: These novels focused on the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920), where the initial fight for freedom gave way to a social and agrarian revolution led by figures like Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. The revolution proposed major changes that were ultimately not fully realized. Writers, often skeptical and disillusioned, explored the betrayal of these ideals and identified with the marginalized people. Mariano Azuela’s works, such as Los de abajo (The Underdogs), Andrés Pérez, maderista, and Las moscas (The Flies), stand out in this category. Alongside Azuela, Martín Luis Guzmán contributed with novels like La sombra del caudillo (The Shadow of the Leader) and El águila y la serpiente (The Eagle and the Serpent).
The “Indian Novel”: This trend highlighted the problems faced by indigenous communities in Latin America. Notable authors include Jorge Icaza with Huasipungo and En las calles (In the Streets), Alcides Arguedas with Raza de bronce (Race of Bronze), and Ciro Alegría with El mundo es ancho y ajeno (Broad and Alien is the World).

Novels of the Land

This trend showcased the unequal struggle between civilization (progress, culture, dominance) and the vast American landscape (the Pampas, Andes, Amazon). Two subgenres emerged:

The Regional Novel: This subgenre began with José Eustasio Rivera’s La vorágine (The Vortex) and also featured prominent works like Rómulo Gallegos’ Doña Bárbara.
The Gaucho Novel: This subgenre, exemplified by Ricardo Güiraldes’ Don Segundo Sombra, presented the gaucho (Argentine cowboy) as a symbol of freedom against the backdrop of a poeticized and nostalgic natural setting.

The Success of Realism

By the mid-20th century, the novel was no longer merely reflecting reality but actively shaping it. Themes broadened to encompass more universal concerns, and the omniscient narrator was often abandoned. A double renewal took place:

Thematic Renewal: Alongside the vast landscapes, urban spaces and the world of dreams emerged as prominent themes, influenced by Freudian psychology and the exploration of the subconscious. Writers delved into the reality of the individual “I” and questioned the relativity of time, without abandoning social issues altogether.
Formal Renewal: Narrative production was profoundly impacted by new aesthetic trends such as surrealism and existentialism, drawing inspiration from both European and American literary movements.

Magical Realism

From this period onward, imagination and fantasy became integral elements of the Latin American novel. Latin American reality itself was seen as inherently magical, possessing elements that traditional realism could not fully capture. The narrative seamlessly blended the natural and the supernatural, presenting the irrational alongside everyday events in a way that felt entirely logical within the fictional world. Key authors of this movement include:

Miguel Ángel Asturias (Guatemala): Leyendas de Guatemala (Legends of Guatemala) and El señor presidente (Mr. President)
Alejo Carpentier (Cuba): El reino de este mundo (The Kingdom of This World), Los pasos perdidos (The Lost Steps), El siglo de las luces (Explosion in a Cathedral), La consagración de la primavera (The Rite of Spring), and Concierto barroco (Baroque Concerto)
Jorge Luis Borges (Argentina): Ficciones (Fictions), El Aleph (The Aleph), El hacedor (The Maker), El informe de Brodie (Brodie’s Report), El libro de arena (The Book of Sand), and Historia de la eternidad (A History of Eternity)
Juan Rulfo (Mexico): El llano en llamas (The Burning Plain), Pedro Páramo, and El gallo de oro (The Golden Cockerel)

The “Boom” in Hispanic Literature

In the 1960s, the “Boom” emerged, driven in part by a cultural movement aimed at breaking the political and economic blockade imposed on Cuba. It brought together a group of writers—including Julio Cortázar, Carlos Fuentes, Mario Vargas Llosa, and Gabriel García Márquez—who initially supported the Cuban Revolution, believing it could serve as a positive example for their countries. Additionally, the Spanish publishing industry’s efforts to expand into Latin American markets led to the creation of the Biblioteca Breve Prize, which further propelled the movement. The Boom was characterized by its focus on urban issues, the existential search for identity, and the incorporation of fantastical elements. Prominent authors include:

Ernesto Sabato (Argentina): El túnel (The Tunnel), Sobre héroes y tumbas (On Heroes and Tombs), and Abaddón el exterminador (Abaddon the Exterminator)
Julio Cortázar (Argentina): Bestiario (Bestiary), Las armas secretas (Secret Weapons), and Rayuela (Hopscotch)
Carlos Fuentes (Mexico): La muerte de Artemio Cruz (The Death of Artemio Cruz)
Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru): La ciudad y los perros (The Time of the Hero), La tía Julia y el escribidor (Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter), La casa verde (The Green House), Conversación en La Catedral (Conversation in the Cathedral), Pantaleón y las visitadoras (Captain Pantoja and the Special Service), and Lituma en los Andes (Death in the Andes)
Gabriel García Márquez (Colombia): Cien años de soledad (One Hundred Years of Solitude), La hojarasca (Leaf Storm), El coronel no tiene quien le escriba (No One Writes to the Colonel), Los funerales de la Mamá Grande (Big Mama’s Funeral), La increíble y triste historia de la cándida Eréndira y de su abuela desalmada (The Incredible and Sad Tale of Innocent Eréndira and Her Heartless Grandmother), El otoño del patriarca (The Autumn of the Patriarch), Crónica de una muerte anunciada (Chronicle of a Death Foretold), and El amor en los tiempos del cólera (Love in the Time of Cholera)

The Generation of 27 in Spanish Poetry

Various Names and Artistic Affinities

Poets born around 1891-1905, who have been referred to by various names such as the “Generation of the Dictatorship” (a term they rejected), the “Generation of the Revista de Occidente” (where many published their work), or the “Grandchildren of ’98” (as they were influenced by Miguel de Unamuno and Antonio Machado). Luis Cernuda preferred the name “Generation of 25,” marking the year of publication of their first major works: Libro de poemas (Book of Poems) by Federico García Lorca (1921) and Cántico (Song) by Jorge Guillén (1928). Dámaso Alonso coined the term “Group of 27,” as they did not identify with any specific national or international event (although they did commemorate the tercentenary of Luis de Góngora’s death). They had no single leader (not even Juan Ramón Jiménez). Its members included: Pedro Salinas, Jorge Guillén, Gerardo Diego, Dámaso Alonso, Federico García Lorca, Vicente Aleixandre, Rafael Alberti, Luis Cernuda, Emilio Prados, and Manuel Altolaguirre. They have also been called the “Generation of Friendship” due to their close personal relationships fostered through the Residencia de Estudiantes (a student residence in Madrid), the Centro de Estudios Históricos (Center for Historical Studies), and literary magazines like La Gaceta Literaria and Revista de Occidente.

Characteristics of the Group

The Generation of 27 exhibited a tendency to balance between opposing extremes:

Between the intellectual and the sentimental: Their poetry combined restrained emotion with intellectual depth.
Between an almost mystical conception of poetry and a meticulous approach to its creation: They valued both intuition and reason. Poetry was seen as inexplicable, yet the poetic process demanded technical rigor.
Between aesthetic purity and human authenticity: Their initial focus on beauty evolved towards concerns about human authenticity.
Between minority and majority appeal: Their poems alternated between hermeticism and clarity, appealing to both cultured and popular audiences.
Between the universal and the Spanish, leading to a tension between tradition and renewal: While embracing avant-garde movements, they also sought to maintain a connection with Spanish literary tradition. They admired both avant-garde and classical authors.
This duality also manifested in the aesthetic realm: They combined a cultured aesthetic with a reverence for popular forms (ballads and traditional songs), achieving a renewal of contemporary poetry.

Evolution and Stages of the Group

According to Dámaso Alonso and Luis Cernuda, the Generation of 27 went through three distinct stages:

Up to 1927: This initial stage was characterized by a strong influence of Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, a rejection of Modernism, and the assimilation of avant-garde influences. Juan Ramón Jiménez guided them towards a pure poetry (focused on metaphor), which led to a dehumanized art that was later balanced with elements of popular poetry (e.g., Marinero en tierra (Sailor Ashore) by Rafael Alberti and Libro de poemas by Lorca).
From 1927 until the Spanish Civil War: The year 1927 marked the peak and subsequent decline of their aesthetic ideals. This period saw a more intimate and direct communication with the world and the reader. With the arrival of Surrealism, they began to explore eternal human emotions (love, longing for fulfillment, existential problems). It was a time of human and passionate poetry, with the introduction of social and political themes.
The Time of War and Exile: After the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and the death of Lorca, most members of the group (except for Aleixandre and Gerardo Diego) went into exile. Each poet followed their own path without abandoning the focus on human experience. Their poetry often took on a testimonial quality, expressing nostalgia for their lost homeland and the pain of exile. The awarding of the Nobel Prize in Literature to Vicente Aleixandre in 1977 confirmed the poetic achievements of a group that ushered in a new Golden Age of Spanish poetry.

Metrical Innovations

The Generation of 27 made significant contributions to Spanish versification:

They discarded many of the meters and stanzas used by Modernism and embraced free verse, influenced by Juan Ramón Jiménez, Surrealism, and Spanish American poets like César Vallejo and Pablo Neruda.
They employed variable measures and pauses, prioritizing rhythm (rather than strict adherence to syllable count or rhyme) achieved through the repetition of ideas (anaphora, parallelism, etc.).
They integrated traditional metrical resources, such as metrical schemes, repetitions, and syntactic parallelism, into their innovative poetic language.

Authors

Federico García Lorca (Granada, 1898-1936)

Lorca’s vibrant personality and artistic genius were intertwined with a sense of frustration, evident in his works where cultured and popular elements blended seamlessly, as did passion and formal perfection. His early books included Impresiones y paisajes (Impressions and Landscapes, prose) and Libro de poemas (Book of Poems, reflecting his childhood). These were followed by Canciones (Songs, a heterogeneous collection), Poema del cante jondo (Poem of the Deep Song, with a unified structure), Romancero gitano (Gypsy Ballads, celebrating marginalized communities and achieving great success), and Poeta en Nueva York (Poet in New York, written after a period of crisis during his stay in New York City). His later poems include Diván del Tamarit and Llanto por Ignacio Sánchez Mejías (Lament for Ignacio Sánchez Mejías).

Rafael Alberti (El Puerto de Santa María, 1902-1999)

Alberti, actively involved in politics and the Spanish Civil War, went into exile. After a period of crisis that led him to lose his religious faith, he wrote Sobre los ángeles (Concerning the Angels, surrealist in style), followed by Sermones y moradas (Sermons and Dwellings) in a similar vein. He then embarked on a phase of social and political poetry, which he called “civil poetry,” with works like El poeta en la calle (The Poet in the Street), De un momento a otro (From One Moment to the Next), and Entre el clavel y la espada (Between the Carnation and the Sword). During his exile, he published Pleamar (High Tide) and Retornos de lo vivo lejano (Returns from the Living Distance). In his later years, he produced books like A la pintura (To Painting), Ocho nombres de Picasso (Eight Names of Picasso), and Abierto a todas horas (Open All Hours). He also wrote a memoir titled La arboleda perdida (The Lost Grove).

Emilio Prados (Málaga, 1899-1962)

Prados, with a tendency towards introspection, delved into the complexities of life and death. His early poetry was marked by popular influences and the style of Juan Ramón Jiménez. His surrealist phase coincided with a personal crisis and resulted in works like La voz cautiva (The Captive Voice) and Andando andando por el mundo (Walking Walking Through the World). A brief period of politically engaged poetry followed with Llanto en la sangre (Crying in the Blood) and Cancionero menor para los combatientes (Minor Songbook for the Combatants). In exile, he published Jardín cerrado (Enclosed Garden). Although often considered a secondary figure, his poetry is both beautiful and meticulously crafted.

Manuel Altolaguirre (Málaga, 1905-1959)

The youngest member of the group and a close friend of Prados, Altolaguirre possessed a warm and engaging personality. After the Spanish Civil War, he lived in Cuba and Mexico before returning to Spain, where he died in a car accident in 1959. His poetry is notable for its musicality. His most important works include Las islas invitadas (The Invited Islands), Poemas de la isla (Poems of the Island), Soledades juntas (Solitudes Together), and Fin de un amor (End of a Love), published during his exile. He also wrote Poesía de América (Poetry of America).

Luis Cernuda (Seville, 1902-1963)

Life: Born in Seville in 1902, Cernuda was a student of Pedro Salinas and actively supported the Republican cause during the Spanish Civil War, leading to his exile in 1938. He lectured at English and American universities and lived in Mexico until his death in 1963. A solitary and sensitive individual, he never hid his homosexuality and his awareness of being an outsider, which fueled his rebellious spirit.

Themes: A romantic sensibility underpins his poetic world. His thematic focus is the separation between desire and imposed reality. His favorite subjects include loneliness, the yearning for perfect beauty, and love.

Style: Cernuda occupies a unique place within the Generation of 27, as he embarked on a solitary and distinctive poetic path. His poetic language arises from a triple rejection: he discarded overly marked rhythms, rhyme, and a visually rich language in favor of a conversational tone.

Work:

He gathered several of his books under the title La realidad y el deseo (Reality and Desire) in 1936.
His early work, Perfil del aire (Profile of Air), falls within the aesthetic of pure poetry. He also wrote eclogues, elegies, and odes.
Influenced by French Surrealism, he published Un río, un amor (A River, a Love).
He moved away from surrealist language to find a more personal tone in Donde habite el olvido (Where Oblivion Dwells).
Invocaciones (Invocations) closes his pre-war poetry.
During the early days of the war and his exile, he wrote Las nubes (The Clouds), poems inspired by the reality of the moment.
In exile, he published Como quien espera el alba (As One Awaits the Dawn), Vivir sin estar viviendo (To Live Without Being Alive), Con las horas contadas (With the Hours Counted), and Desolación de la quimera (Desolation of the Chimera).
Ocnos, written in poetic prose, is a nostalgic evocation of his Andalusian homeland. Variaciones sobre tema mexicano (Variations on a Mexican Theme) and several essay collections complete his prose work.

Significance: Cernuda’s unique and solitary approach makes him difficult to categorize. His independent spirit led him down untrodden thematic and stylistic paths. In recent years, poets and critics have increasingly recognized the value of his poetry. His clean, perfect, and increasingly dense language has earned him a prominent place in 20th-century Spanish literature.