20th-Century Political Upheavals: Monarchies, Republics, and Conflicts
The Reign of Elizabeth II
Governments and Challenges
Governments alternated between moderate and progressive ideologies across three distinct periods:
- Moderate Decade (1844-1856): Led by Espartero. This period saw a new disentailment with the Madoz Law and ministerial alternation between moderates and the Liberal Union.
The Elizabethan monarchy faced numerous challenges:
- Increasing intervention of the army
- Emergence of new political groups
- Carlist Civil War
- Public discontent against the electoral farce following the Sexenio Revolucionario
A provisional government, presided over by General Serrano, was formed after Isabel II’s exile. The election of Amadeo of Savoy established a democratic monarchy. However, his reign was short-lived due to opposition from Carlists and Republicans, as well as the colonial conflict in Cuba.
The Restoration
The Restoration was made possible through agreements between leading politicians and Alfonso XII. Antonio Cánovas del Castillo shaped the new regime based on:
- Establishment of a hereditary parliamentary monarchy
- A bicameral Cortes (parliament)
- Promulgation of the 1876 Constitution
- Two-party system (Conservative and Liberal)
Alfonso XII’s reign experienced relative political stability, but challenges remained:
- Opposition from Carlists and Republicans
- Rise of regionalism
- Development of the labor movement
Bismarck’s Germany and Colonial Imperialism
Bismarck’s policies focused on creating international alliances (Bismarckian System) to isolate France and maintain German stability. Three systems were constructed:
- Russia and Austria-Hungary
- Germany
The period between 1871 and 1914 is known as the Armed Peace. Factors driving colonial expansion included:
- Demographic growth
- Social and political factors
- Cultural and scientific influences
World War I
Causes of the war included territorial disputes, economic rivalry, and colonial interests, leading to the formation of two blocs:
- Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria
- Triple Entente: France, Great Britain, Russia, Serbia, Belgium
The conflict introduced new weapons and technologies, including machine guns, poison gas, flamethrowers, and improved communication systems. Women entered the workforce, and propaganda played a crucial role.
Post-War and the Russian Revolution
The Treaty of Versailles and other treaties reshaped Europe. In Russia, the February 1917 revolution led to the fall of the Tsarist regime.
Stalinism and the Interwar Period
Stalin’s Rise and Economic Policies
In the late 1920s, Stalin consolidated power, implementing a planned economy through Five-Year Plans. Key features included:
- Collectivization of agriculture
- Planned industrialization
These policies led to significant social changes, including a decline in the farming population and the rise of an industrial working class.
Democracies and the League of Nations
Germany’s Weimar Republic faced economic and political challenges. France and Britain experienced deep crises. The U.S., benefiting from the war, consolidated its global power. The League of Nations, established to maintain peace, faced difficulties but contributed to international stability through the Locarno Treaty and the Kellogg-Briand Pact.
Spain Under Alfonso XIII and the Second Republic
Spain inherited the political problems of the Restoration. The Tragic Week in Barcelona (1909) highlighted social tensions. Spain remained neutral in World War I. Following municipal elections in 1931, the Second Republic was proclaimed on April 14th. The Spanish Civil War ended with Franco’s victory in 1939.