20th Century Literature & History: Movements and Key Figures
The 20th Century World
Technological Advances and Wars
The 20th century was marked by significant technological advancements and major global conflicts:
- Russo-Japanese War (1905): Japan’s victory established it as a major world power.
- World War I (1914-1918): The war’s end led to the establishment of the League of Nations to prevent future conflicts.
- World War II (1940-1945): The U.S. and the Soviet Union emerged as superpowers, and the UN replaced the League of Nations.
- Cold War (1947-1991): This conflict played out on political and economic fronts rather than through direct military engagement.
The century concluded with the globalization process, characterized by the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of nations.
Spain in the 20th Century
Spain experienced a period of crisis across various sectors:
Economy and Society
A predominantly rural society with limited industrial development and significant social inequalities led to the rise of socialism and anarchism.
Politics
Following the loss of its American colonies, Spain faced political instability.
European Literature in the 20th Century
The 20th century began with a crisis of conscience and widespread dissatisfaction with the previous century’s realistic aesthetic. Several major literary movements emerged:
Parnassianism
This movement sought to escape the mundane world and embrace formal beauty. Writers prioritized form over content and aimed to transcend reality.
Key Author: Charles Baudelaire (Flowers of Evil)
Decadence
This movement explored new avenues of formal beauty, including the macabre and the grotesque. Writers used stylized language and explored themes of decay and artificiality.
Key Author: Paul Verlaine (Saturnian Poems)
Symbolism
Symbolists aimed to explore the depths of existence through the use of symbols and imagery. They sought to evoke reality through the power of language.
Key Author: Arthur Rimbaud (Illuminations)
Modernism
Modernism evolved from aestheticism towards social and existential concerns.
Origins
Early modernists drew inspiration from Parnassianism and Symbolism:
- Parnassianism: Modernists adopted its technical perfection and focus on escaping reality.
- Symbolism: Modernists utilized symbols and imagery to evoke a deeper understanding of reality.
Characteristics
Themes and Settings
Modernists often employed exotic, unreal, or historically remote settings to escape from contemporary reality. They used imagery of mythical creatures, castles, lush gardens, and fountains.
Meter and Form
Modernists adapted French metrical forms and incorporated traditional verse structures like the Alexandrine.
Style
Modernist poems often blended sensory experiences through synesthesia. They utilized various sound devices such as alliteration, parallelism, and internal rhyme.
Spanish Modernism
Representative Authors
Spanish authors contributed to various literary genres:
Poetry
Key figures include Manuel Machado (Caprichos and Souls), Antonio Machado (Solitudes and Loneliness, Galleries), and Juan Ramón Jiménez (Lilies, Violet Souls, Sad Arias and Times).
Novel
Ramón María del Valle-Inclán stands out with his prose works like the Sonatas and Memoirs of the Marquis of Bradomín.
Theater
Important authors include Eduardo Marquina (In Flanders the Sun Does Not Set and When the Roses Bloom at Night) and Valle-Inclán (Ashes, Divine Words).
Rubén Darío
Born in Nicaragua, Rubén Darío’s work as a journalist and diplomat took him across Europe and America, making him a key figure in the spread of Modernism. His writings reflect his turbulent life, marked by sensual pleasure, intellectual friendships, and engagement with Romantic, Parnassian, and Symbolist literature.
Key Works
- Azul: Considered a pioneering work of Modernism, it showcases Parnassian influences and comprises prose poems and short stories reflecting Darío’s innovative spirit.
- Profane Prose: This poetry collection demonstrates Darío’s mastery of language, incorporating innovative metrical combinations, alliteration, and synesthesia. It explores the theme of love in harmony with art.
- Songs of Life and Hope: This collection reveals a more personal tone, expressing Darío’s concern for his people and their future.
The Generation of ’98
The crisis of the late 19th century in Spain gave rise to a group of writers known as the Generation of ’98. Coined by José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín), the term encompasses authors who shared a sense of idealism, a spirit of protest, and a dedication to artistic mastery.
Characteristics
- Revolt: They reacted against the political corruption and instability plaguing Spain.
- Rediscovery of Spanish Culture: They sought to explore forgotten aspects of Spanish culture, including its landscapes, medieval literature, and traditional language.
- Antirhetoric: They favored sobriety and elegance in their writing style.
- Subjectivism: Their works often reflected their personal feelings and perspectives.
- Traditionalism: Their interest in Spain led them to incorporate traditional vocabulary and draw inspiration from classical sources.
Genre
The Generation of ’98 primarily focused on the essay, as it provided a flexible form for expressing their thoughts, cultural reflections, and lyrical vision.
Themes
Some common themes explored by these authors include:
- Spain: They expressed concern for Spain’s decline and showed a deep interest in its landscape, history, and culture.
- History: They sought to rediscover Spanish values and understand the roots of the country’s present challenges.
Representative Authors
Prominent figures of the Generation of ’98 include:
- Miguel de Unamuno: His early novel, Peace in War, employed a realistic style, but his later works, known as “nivolas,” blended literature and philosophy. He grappled with questions about Spain’s identity and the conflict between faith and reason.