20th Century European Political Systems and Conflicts
Stalin’s Dictatorship and the Great Purges
Joseph Stalin, who had held the position of Party Secretary since 1922, soon initiated a phase of concentrated power, using purges to eliminate any individual opposing his ideas. Between 1935 and 1938, Russian society was subjected to a process of ‘debugging’ or cleansing. Terror became the most common weapon in the hands of the political police. A new constitution, approved in 1936, announced ‘democratic freedoms,’ which were, in reality, exercised as a disguised dictatorship directly by the Party Secretary. This democratic appearance served to justify the idea that such freedoms were useless due to the political restrictions imposed by the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat.’
Europe’s Political Landscape: 1919-1939
The Rise of Democratic Systems
After the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, Europe entered a new stage of convulsions that ultimately led to World War II in 1939. By 1929, democratic regimes faced three new circumstances: the proletarian movement, fascism, and the victors of the Russian Revolution. The victorious World War I countries – France, Britain, and the USA – became democratic models for the rest of the world.
Emergence of Totalitarian Regimes
This period led to the emergence of totalitarian and fascist systems.
Italian Fascism: Mussolini’s Ascent
In 1922, the “March on Rome” occurred, supported by the “Blackshirts,” a paramilitary group that disrupted strikes, attacked workers and peasants, and murdered political leaders. Benito Mussolini became Prime Minister, and his party, established in 1921, gained significant representation. On January 2, 1925, a decree dissolved the chambers, paving the way for a totalitarian dictatorship.
German Nazism: Hitler’s Path to Power
The origins of Nazism are found in post-war republican Germany. Adolf Hitler founded the German National Socialist Party in 1921. Causes of its rise included: the dire situation in Germany after the war, dissatisfaction caused by the Treaty of Versailles, the weak democratic regime of the Weimar Republic, and severe economic difficulties (unemployment, inflation). Hitler’s attempt to seize power by force in 1923 (the Beer Hall Putsch in Munich) was unsuccessful. However, the impact of the 1929 economic crisis in Germany was crucial for Hitler’s ascent to power in 1933.
Pre-World War I Europe: Alliances and Tensions (1914)
This section discusses the political map of Europe in 1914. On this map, we can observe the Triple Alliance, Triple Entente, and the Balkan Entente.
Major European Alliances
- Triple Alliance: Composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Italy.
- Triple Entente: Formed by Britain, France, and the Russian Empire.
- Balkan Entente: Formed by Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece.
Key Areas of International Tension
The main areas of international tension were located in Morocco, on the border between France and Germany, and in the Balkans. Europe in 1914 was characterized by territorial, economic, political, and ideological rivalries among the powers, which led to the establishment of alliances that heightened tensions. These alliances formed between 1890 and 1910. European foreign policy in the late 19th century was dominated by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. He aimed to replace the idea of a balance of powers with German dominance, as Germany had become the leading economic power. The German system was based on the Triple Alliance of 1882. France, from 1892, formed the Triple Entente. Two major blocs divided Europe, operating as systems that ostensibly ensured peace. However, the threat of war was clear on several occasions due to pre-war crises.
The Moroccan Crises
These crises developed in Morocco and the Balkans, driven by the colonial ambitions of European countries and rising nationalisms. In the early 20th century, Morocco was an undivided country, appealing to Germany for its commercial potential, which resulted in clashes with France. Among these were two major crises, notably:
- Crisis of 1905: Germany helped Morocco resist the French attempt to establish a protectorate over the country. In 1906, the Algeciras Conference decided to establish a Franco-Spanish protectorate over the North African country, closing the incident.