19th Century Transformations: From Industrialization to Revolutions

Posted on Aug 7, 2024 in History

Cast-Iron Architecture

Technological advances allowed foundries to produce larger quantities of cast iron more easily and cheaply. Cast iron became a popular building material. Some notable examples include the Reading Room of the National Library in Paris, by Labrouste, and the Crystal Palace in Madrid, designed by Velázquez Bosco.

Realism

Realism was an artistic movement that sought to portray the realities of working-class life. Artists depicted working-class people in their homes and workplaces, such as fields and factories. They also highlighted the harsh living and working conditions endured by these families. Notable examples include:

  • The Blacksmith by Meunier
  • The Angelus by Millet
  • The Washerwoman by Daumier

Expansion and Civil War in the United States

Westward Expansion

During the 19th century, the United States experienced significant population growth, fueled by European immigrants seeking a better life. This population surge encouraged westward expansion, leading to conflicts and wars with Native Americans, resulting in the destruction of many tribes.

The American Civil War

The Northern states opposed slavery, which persisted in the Southern states. Fearful of abolition, the South seceded, leading to the Civil War. The North emerged victorious, and universal manhood suffrage was established.

Latin American Independence

During the reign of Fernando VII, Spanish colonies in Central and South America began demanding independence. Several factors contributed to these movements:

  1. The independence of the United States, the French Revolution, and the Spanish War of Independence inspired the colonies to fight for their freedom.
  2. Great Britain offered economic support to revolutionaries, aiming to break Spain’s trade monopoly over its colonies.
  3. Similar to Britain’s 13 North American colonies, the Creole upper-middle classes in Spanish America desired greater political and economic control.

In the early 19th century, military leaders secured crucial victories against Spanish forces.

Romanticism

Romanticism, a cultural and artistic movement that dominated Europe during the first half of the 19th century, emphasized:

  • Creative freedom for the artist: Reflecting liberal ideals of freedom.
  • Respect for the individual: Artists should express their inner world.
  • Expression of feelings: Transmitting emotions, such as love, was paramount.
  • Glorification of national history: Artists often drew inspiration from the Middle Ages to express nationalist sentiment.

Architecture

Architects celebrated their nation’s history by emulating Gothic architecture, leading to the Neo-Gothic style.

Sculpture

Sculptors conveyed the freedom and independence of people through dramatic and dynamic depictions, as seen in The Marseillaise relief by Francois Rude.

Painting

Romantic paintings offered idealized portrayals of the anguish experienced during the 19th-century liberal revolutions, employing warm colors and dynamic scenes. A prime example is The Raft of the Medusa by Théodore Géricault.

Romanticism in Spain

Developing later, during the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Spanish Romanticism in architecture featured Mudéjar-style materials and decorative elements. Notable painters include Gisbert and Esquivel.

Political Developments 1815-1820

Following Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, the Ancien Régime and absolute monarchy were restored in Europe. However, opposition arose, demanding the rights and freedoms gained during the French Revolution. Meanwhile, in America, the North and South diverged, with Spanish colonies achieving independence and becoming sovereign states. Cultural developments often contrasted with these political shifts.

The Restoration in Europe (1815-1820)

The Restoration marked the return of the Ancien Régime after Napoleon’s downfall. At the Congress of Vienna, European leaders agreed on several measures:

  • Restoration of Absolute Monarchy: European monarchs returned to power, although some accepted constitutional limits.
  • Changes to Europe’s Borders: Napoleon’s conquests had redrawn the map of Europe, necessitating adjustments.
  • Formation of Alliances: Two alliances emerged to enforce the Congress’s agreements and support restored monarchs against revolutions:
    • The Holy Alliance: Russia, Austria, and Prussia.
    • The Quadruple Alliance: The Holy Alliance members plus Great Britain (United Kingdom).

The Reign of Fernando VII

After Spain’s victory over Napoleon, Fernando VII returned to the throne. His reign can be divided into three periods:

  1. The Restoration of Absolutism: Initially supported by the Spanish people, Fernando VII, backed by absolutists, abolished the Constitution of 1812 and ruled as an absolute monarch.
  2. The Liberal Period: Military rebellions against absolutism, led by officers like Riego and Quiroga, forced Fernando VII to accept a constitution and restore suppressed rights and freedoms.
  3. The Victory of Absolutism: In 1823, Fernando VII sought assistance from the Holy Alliance to re-establish absolutism, which he maintained until his death.

Upon his death, his daughter Isabel inherited the throne.

Who Was Fernando VII?

Fernando VII remains a controversial figure in Spanish history. Nicknamed”El Desead” (The Desired) upon his return, he was also called”El Rey Feló” (The Felon King) for his absolutist policies. His reign was marked by political instability and repression.

The Age of Revolution

The first half of the 19th century witnessed political revolutions that ended absolute monarchy in much of Europe. These movements were largely driven by liberal and nationalist ideologies.

1820s

  1. Liberal revolutions in Portugal and Spain led to the establishment of constitutional monarchies.
  2. Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire.

1830

  1. A liberal revolution in France established a constitutional monarchy.
  2. A nationalist revolution in Belgium led to independence from the Netherlands.

Unifications

Italian Unification

Initiated in 1859 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, with support from France, Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour fought against Austria, expelling them from Lombardy. Piedmont-Sardinia, with Garibaldi’s help, annexed the rest of the Italian Peninsula, culminating in unification in 1871.

German Unification

Orchestrated by Bismarck, the process involved conflict with Denmark over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia’s victory increased its influence in northern Germany. Bismarck’s maneuvering led to the establishment of the Second Reich, a unified German Empire.

The Reign of Isabel II

Isabel II’s reign marked the end of absolutism in Spain and the establishment of a liberal constitutional monarchy. While the monarch retained considerable power, it was limited by the constitution. Isabel II enjoyed the support of the Liberal and Progressive parties. Her reign saw new constitutions and the introduction of limited male suffrage. However, the military remained influential in politics.

Regencies and Carlist Wars

During Isabel II’s childhood, regents governed in her stead. This period was marked by the Carlist Wars, conflicts between supporters of Isabel II and those who favored her uncle, Carlos, for the throne.

Political and Economic Problems

Upon reaching adulthood, Isabel II faced political challenges, including opposition from new political parties and popular discontent over electoral fraud. Economic problems also plagued her reign. To address these issues, her government expropriated lands from the nobility, which helped pay off state debts but had negative consequences:

  • Small farmers, unable to afford their lands, sold them to the wealthy bourgeoisie.
  • Common lands were sold, often converted to pastures or animal farms.
  • The expropriation of church lands reduced support for the poor.

The Glorious Revolution

: Was the first attempt to established democracy in Spain during this period, the constitution of 869 was approved, and it was the most progressive, because it established universal manhood suffrage as well as protecting rights and freedoms. This revolution was followed as the siv Revolutionary Years, during chich there were two political systems in Spain, that were:

– DEMOCRATIC MONARCHY: Amadeo of Savoy became King of Spain, he had to abdicate beause republicans and Carlists rejected him. The supporters of Alfonso were also opposed to him.

– THE FIRST REPUBLIC: Spain has a republican government for the first time, this was faced many problems and the regional autonomy in Andalucía, Levante and Cataluña, also the Third Carlist War had also broken out. During the six revolutionary years, monetary unin was acieves in Spain and the peseta country´s official currency. In December 874 there were a military uprising, these brought the return of the Bourbon dynaty to power and the end of First republic.