19th-Century Transformations: Europe’s Shifting Landscape

Posted on Oct 2, 2024 in History

The Unification of Germany

In the early 19th century, Prussia emerged as a powerful kingdom in eastern Germany, showcasing strong political and military organization. Southern Germany, including the Kingdom of Bavaria, coexisted with numerous smaller, independent territories governed by princes. These territories boasted high levels of economic and cultural development. Other German territories were under the rule of the King of Denmark or the Austrian Empire. The Congress of Vienna and the Austrian Empire established the Germanic Confederation, consisting of 39 states, resistant to the idea of a liberal state. Prussia took the initiative to create the Zollverein, or customs union, excluding Austria. This trade union fostered economic development through a unified rail network and empowered the burgeoning bourgeoisie, fueling the struggle for unification.

The 1848 revolution, with its social and democratic demands, instilled fear in the bourgeoisie. Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck steered the unification process in an authoritarian direction, declaring war on Denmark to seize the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig. Austria, allied with Denmark, was defeated at the Battle of Sadowa. Bismarck orchestrated the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine, territories with German-speaking populations but belonging to France. France was defeated at the Battle of Sedan, leading to Prussian occupation. This culminated in the birth of the Second German Empire in 1871.

The Unification of Italy

In the 19th century, Italy was fragmented into numerous independent kingdoms. In the northwest, the Kingdom of Piedmont, with its capital in Turin, was established by the Congress of Vienna. Piedmont later annexed Sardinia, a wealthy northern region. Austria occupied territories including Milan and Venice. The Bourbon monarchy ruled Naples and Sicily in the south. In central Italy, Pope Pius IX governed the Papal States from Rome.

Piedmont’s Prime Minister, Cavour, secured French support and defeated the Austrians at the Battles of Solferino and Magenta, incorporating northern Italy into Piedmont. Giuseppe Garibaldi subsequently occupied Naples and Sicily, ceding these territories to Piedmont. The Pope relinquished the Papal States, retaining only Vatican City. The result was a unified Italian parliamentary monarchy under Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy, the former monarch of Piedmont, with Rome as its capital.

Spain: Ferdinand VII and the Bourbon Reforms

Ferdinand VII (1814-1833)

The Absolutist Sexenio (1814-1820)

  • End of the War of Independence; the king returns to Spain.
  • Abolition of the liberal Constitution of Cadiz.
  • Liberal military uprisings against absolutism, including the Conspiracy of the Triangle.

The Trienio Liberal (1820-1823)

  • Triumph of the military coup led by Rafael del Riego; the Constitution is restored.
  • The Holy Alliance sends the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis.
  • The fall of the liberals, divided into doceañistas (moderates) and veinteañistas (radicals).

The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

  • Return to absolutism; persecution of liberals, including the execution of Mariana Pineda.
  • Reforms and the creation of financial institutions.
  • Law prohibiting female monarchs; Ferdinand’s brother, Carlos, is chosen as successor.
  • Pragmatic Sanction; Ferdinand’s daughter, Isabella II, is declared heir.

Bourbon Reforms

Political Reforms

  • Centralized power: The king as the sole decision-maker.
  • Construction of magnificent palaces, inspired by Versailles.
  • Replacement of traditional governing bodies with cabinet ministers.
  • Centralization of power by removing regional privileges and implementing the Decrees of Nueva Planta, imposing Castilian law.

Economic Reforms

Agriculture
  • Majority of the population engaged in subsistence farming, hampered by poor land distribution and natural conditions.
  • Criticism of entailed estates and mortmain, but limited action taken to redistribute land.
Commerce
  • Domestic trade hindered by internal customs and poor roads; Bourbons promoted public works and established the Correos Marítimos.
  • Mercantilist policies focused on trade with the Americas; Charles III later decreed free trade.
Industry and Finance
  • Government support for industries, particularly textiles, which initially thrived but later faced competition from factories.
  • Financial reforms included population censuses and production estimates to determine tax revenue, leading to the creation of cadastres and indirect taxes.

The Reign of Charles IV

The British defeated the combined Franco-Spanish fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar. Napoleon and Godoy signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, allowing French troops into Spain to attack Portugal. Ferdinand, Godoy’s personal enemy, instigated a revolt against his father, the Mutiny of Aranjuez. Godoy narrowly escaped death and was forced to resign. Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as king, forcing Charles IV and Ferdinand to France. The people of Madrid spontaneously rebelled against the occupying French troops.