19th Century Spanish Politics: From Regency to Reign
Isabel II’s Regency: Maria Cristina (1833-1840)
Context:
This period is marked by the First Carlist War and the gradual implementation of the liberal system. Liberalism itself splits into two main currents:
- Moderates: Favored shared sovereignty, prioritized order and authority over freedom, and maintained ties with the nobility and the Church.
- Progressives: Advocated for national sovereignty, prioritized individual freedoms, and promoted economic and social reforms.
The era was characterized by persistent political instability. Changes in government were often driven by pressure or military uprisings rather than election results.
Moderate Government:
Martinez de la Rosa initiated the transition to a liberal system with cautious reforms and a Royal Statute (a charter granted by the crown, acknowledging royal sovereignty and establishing a bicameral legislature).
Progressive Governments (1835-1837):
Progressives gained power following urban riots in 1835, leading to a period of accelerated reforms. Key reforms included:
- Confiscation of 1836 (Mendizabal): Nationalized Church property (monasteries) and sold it at public auction. This aimed to generate resources for the Carlist War, reduce debt, and create a social group tied to liberalism. However, it also strained relations with the Church, driving many into the Carlist camp.
- Constitution of 1837: A revised version of the 1812 Constitution, incorporating moderate elements (national sovereignty, individual rights, a bicameral parliament with a Congress of Deputies and a Senate). The crown retained significant power, including veto rights, and voting was based on a census.
The Fall of Maria Cristina:
Moderates attempted to regain control. Maria Cristina’s support for reforming municipal laws sparked popular uprisings, forcing her into exile.
Regency of Espartero (1840-1843)
Espartero, a national hero after his victory in the Carlist War and a prominent progressive, became regent. He continued economic reforms, including further confiscations and the adoption of free trade. However, his authoritarian methods failed to achieve political stability.
The bombing of Barcelona eroded his support among moderates and some progressives. Opposition from both sides culminated in an uprising led by Narvaez (a leading moderate), forcing Espartero to relinquish the regency and go into exile. Isabel II was declared of age at 13.
Reign of Isabel II (1843-1868)
Moderate Government (1844-1854): The Ominous Decade
Narvaez took power in 1844, ushering in a long period of moderate rule. Their objectives were:
- Consolidate a centralized liberal state.
- Achieve political stability to foster economic development and strengthen the bourgeoisie.
Key Actions:
- Constitution of 1845: Established shared sovereignty between the crown and the nation, expanded the crown’s powers, maintained a bicameral legislature (Congress and Senate), and significantly restricted freedoms, including freedom of worship.
- Creation of the Civil Guard (1844): A national police force under government control, replacing the suppressed militia.
- Centralizing Legislation: Introduced uniform laws and taxes nationwide, reformed local and provincial administration (with government-appointed governors and mayors), established a Criminal Code, reformed the justice system, and adopted the metric system.
- Concordat of 1851: Reconciled with the Church. The Holy See recognized the confiscations, and the state recognized Catholicism as the official religion.
- Economic Development: Promoted railway construction, banking, and other sectors.
Challenges:
The period was marked by popular and political unrest due to limited freedoms, corruption, the Second Carlist War, and failed uprisings. Growing discontent among some moderates, who favored a parliamentary system and incorporating progressive elements, led to the formation of the Liberal Union, led by O’Donnell and Serrano.
Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
Origin:
The 1854 revolution was triggered by a combination of factors:
- O’Donnell’s uprising in Vicálvaro.
- The Manifiesto de Manzanares, written by Cánovas del Castillo, promising reforms and expanded suffrage.
- Popular uprisings led by progressives and democrats.
The revolution ousted the moderates and brought Espartero back to power, with O’Donnell as Minister of War.
Measures:
- Constitution of 1856: A progressive constitution based on national sovereignty, shared legislative power between the Cortes and the crown, a bicameral parliament, expanded individual freedoms, and religious tolerance. It was never formally approved and became known as the “non nata” (unborn) constitution.
- Economic Reforms: Notably, the Madoz Confiscation of 1855, which affected Church and municipal property.