19th Century Spain: Revolution, Liberalism, and the Carlist Wars
The Revolution (1808-1814)
Charles IV, opposed to the French Revolution, initially entered the war against France (1793-1795). Spain’s defeat led to the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807), allowing French troops to invade Portugal. Subsequent French occupation of Spanish cities sparked the Mutiny of Aranjuez (1808). Charles IV abdicated in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. However, Napoleon forced Ferdinand VII to abdicate in favor of Joseph Bonaparte.
The Supreme Central Junta aimed to establish a unified government, convening the courts to draft the Constitution of 1812. This constitution reflected liberal principles, recognizing national sovereignty, the division of powers, and universal male suffrage. It also abolished the Inquisition, banned guilds, and declared equality before the law.
In 1813, the Treaty of Valençay ended the war and restored the crown to Ferdinand VII. Upon his return, Ferdinand VII repealed the constitution and the reforms approved during the war, restoring the Old Regime.
Absolutist Period (1814-1820)
During this six-year period, liberals were persecuted, and some fled into exile. Attempts to restore liberalism through pronouncements led to the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823).
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
The reinstatement of the 1812 Constitution saw reforms approved in Cadiz and the formation of a national militia. European absolutist powers sent troops (the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis in 1823) to restore absolutism in Spain.
Second Absolutist Period and the Carlist War (1823-1840)
This period witnessed the loss of the American Empire, the creation of the Council of Ministers, economic crises, and dynastic problems. Ferdinand VII promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction of 1830, allowing his daughter to become queen. His brother, Don Carlos, challenged this decision, leading to the First Carlist War (1833-1839). Liberals supported Isabel, while Carlists supported absolutism. The Carlist defeat came with the Embrace of Vergara.
Regency of Maria Cristina (1833-1844)
During the regency, a military uprising in 1836 led to the progressive government of Mendizábal. The seizure and sale of church properties followed in 1837. A new constitution in 1837 established census suffrage and granted more power to the crown. Espartero’s authoritarian rule led to his resignation in 1840, and Elizabeth II was proclaimed an adult.
Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
With moderates in power, the Confiscation of 1844 was suspended, and a new constitution in 1845 restricted voting rights and press freedom. The Vicalvaro Pronouncement ended this period.
Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
The Liberal Union came to power in 1854. The Madoz Law secularized church properties in 1855, and the Railways Act was passed. Uprisings in 1855-1856 led to the progressives’ retreat from power and an alternation of governments between O’Donnell and Narvaez.
The Democratic Six-Year Term (1868-1874)
Governed initially by Serrano and Prim, the Constitution of 1869 was established. Amadeo I of Savoy reigned from 1871-1873. Insurrections in Cuba and a new Carlist War led to the First Republic (1873-1874). After Figueras, Pi y Margall, Salmerón, and Castelar, General Pavia’s coup led to Serrano’s appointment. The Bourbon Restoration followed with Alfonso XII’s proclamation.
The Bourbon Restoration (1874-1931)
Alfonso XII accepted the Manifesto of Sandhurst, establishing a parliamentary monarchy. Cánovas del Castillo became president, ending the war in Cuba and the Carlist Wars. The 1876 Constitution established a system of alternating power between conservatives (Cánovas) and liberals (Sagasta). This period saw electoral corruption (caciquismo and rigging), the rise of anarchism in Catalonia and Andalusia, the founding of the PSOE and UGT by Pablo Iglesias, and the emergence of nationalist movements in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia.
Nationalism in the 19th Century
Nationalism acquired a political dimension in the 19th century. German Romantic theorists emphasized cultural identity, while French theorists focused on a voluntary union of people. Nationalist movements led to Belgium’s independence from the Netherlands in 1830, and several nations gained independence from the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires. Ireland separated from Britain in 1922. Unification movements created Germany and Italy. The United States expanded westward, leading to the Civil War (1861-1865) over slavery.
Liberalism and Authoritarianism
Liberal democracies like the United States and Britain expanded suffrage and freedoms, while authoritarian regimes like Russia and Germany limited political participation. Imperialism saw European powers expand their colonial empires, driven by economic, political, and ideological factors.
Definitions
- Francophiles: Spanish who supported Joseph Bonaparte.
- Fernandinos: Spanish loyal to Ferdinand VII.
- Guerrillas: Civilian fighters who resisted Napoleon’s army.
- Pronunciamiento: Military insurrection aimed at political change.
- Holy Alliance: European monarchs united against liberalism.
- Disentailment: Seizure and sale of church properties.
- Cantonalism: Movement advocating for autonomous states within Spain.