19th Century Spain: Political Instability and Social Change
The Two Progressive Years (1854 – 1856)
The increasingly dictatorial power of Narvaez led to growing discontent, culminating in a moment of maturity. Initiated by General O’Donnell in Vicálvaro, the military coup radicalized after the rebels published the Manifesto of Manzanares. This gained broad popular support and urged other generals to join the rebellion. The coup succeeded, leading to a government headed by the progressive Espartero. General O’Donnell, another key figure, created the Liberal Union party, aiming for a moderate and progressive center, though he initially ruled alongside the progressives. Key measures during this period include:
- The Madoz general secularization in 1855, which completed the disentailment process with municipal assets.
- New constituent courts began developing a more progressive constitution, though it was not implemented.
- Steps were taken to promote economic modernization, such as the Railways Act of 1855.
The Return of the Moderates (1856 – 1858)
Growing social unrest caused a split between Espartero and O’Donnell. Appointed leader of the Liberal Union, O’Donnell became Prime Minister in July 1856, reversing the work of the biennium. This eventually led to the return of Narvaez and the moderates to power in October 1856, reinstating the moderate regime of the 1845 constitution.
The Return of the Moderates (1863 to 1868)
Narvaez’s return to power in 1863 marked the beginning of the moderate party’s decline. Political instability and authoritarian tendencies marked this period, ending the economic boom after the 1864 crisis. The San Gil mutiny in Madrid in 1866 was harshly repressed. Narvaez’s growing authoritarianism led to the Covenant of Ostend, where Unionists, Progressives, and Republicans united to overthrow Elizabeth II and the moderate regime.
The First Republic
The republic was proclaimed by courts with a Republican majority. However, Republican ideas had little social support and faced opposition from powerful groups like the gentry, the church, and a large part of the population. Republicans were mainly from the urban middle classes, while the working classes supported the newly launched anarchist labor movement. The republican regime’s weakness led to political instability, with four presidents in one year: Figueras, Pi y Maragall, Salmeron, and Castelar. Despite this instability, the republican governments launched radical reforms:
- Suppression of the consumption tax, which aggravated the Treasury deficit.
- Elimination of the fifth, weakening the Republican state against the Carlist insurrection.
- Reducing the voting age to 23 years.
- Separation of church and state, ending subsidies to the church.
- Regulation of child labor, forbidding employment of children under ten in mines and factories.
- Abolition of slavery in Cuba and Puerto Rico.
- Draft constitution to establish a federal republic.
This reform program faced a triple challenge of war.
The Revolution of 1868 and the Democratic Presidential Term
The revolution of 1868 was caused by the unpopularity of conservatism, the monarchy of Isabel II, and the Spanish capitalist economic crisis. This situation allowed various political, social, and economic groups marginalized by the moderates to unite, seeking democratic renewal and economic recovery.
The Causes of the Revolution
After 1860, economic and political crises combined, creating instability in Elizabethan Spain. The financial crisis stemmed from unprofitable railway investments. Once the intensive construction period ended, the low yields of Spanish railways became apparent, causing a plummet in the value of railroad shares. This led to a fall in the prices of Public Debt and other financial institutions.
The financial crisis coincided with an industrial downturn, especially in Catalonia. The American Civil War (1861-1865) halted cotton exports, causing prices to rise dramatically. Many small cotton industries could not afford the raw material prices, while demand for textile products decreased due to the general economic crisis and the increase in agricultural prices caused by the food crisis of 1866-1868. Some industries closed, unemployment soared, and living standards declined.
The food crisis, starting around 1866, was caused by poor harvests, resulting in a wheat shortage. The price of wheat rose significantly, with prices in Madrid increasing by 100% between 1866 and 1868.
By 1868, much of the population had reason to oppose the Elizabethan system. Big business, linked to foreign capital, demanded government action to save their investments. Industrialists demanded protectionist measures, while workers and peasants denounced their misery and demanded government action to improve their situation. In 1866, the O’Donnell government harshly suppressed a revolt of the sergeants of the San Gil headquarters, who called for political reform. O’Donnell was removed from government, but subsequent moderate cabinets continued to rule by decree, ignoring the country’s problems.
In August 1866, the opposition formed a platform to end conservatism, the Covenant of Ostend, signed by progressives and democrats in exile. This agreement set the minimum basis for revolutionary action, was anti-Elizabethan, and left the question of monarchy or republic to constituent courts elected by universal suffrage. The Democrats secured universal suffrage, while the Progressives (Prim) prioritized the overthrow of Isabel II. The Unionists joined the pact in November 1867, after O’Donnell’s death, which was essential to the revolution’s success.