19th Century Spain: Demographics, Social Structure, and Culture
1. Demographics
Throughout the 19th century, Spain’s birth rate remained among the highest in Europe, never falling below 3%. This was due to various factors, including the persistently high infant mortality rate. Malthusian practices were not observed. Mortality remained above 20%. Three major cholera waves between 1834 and 1885 caused half a million deaths, with a mortality rate of 1/3. This high fatality rate stemmed from poor social hygiene and the use of cesspits until the mid-century when sewers were introduced. Life expectancy was low, not exceeding 40 years for the rich and 20 for the poor. The state’s efforts in healthcare were limited, focusing on port controls to prevent the entry of pathogens, but neglecting regulations for these boards, rendering them ineffective.
Cities grew, with Madrid and Barcelona exceeding half a million inhabitants. Seville and Valencia consolidated their positions, while Bilbao, Zaragoza, and Malaga experienced rapid growth. City expansion involved breaking down old walls and creating new neighborhoods, often with orthogonal designs and diagonals. Emigration was significant, with many Spaniards leaving for Algeria, France, Cuba, and the Americas. Galicia and the Canary Islands were major emigration regions. This emigration, from mid-century onwards, was driven by legal and economic obstacles, the advent of steamships, and the late 19th-century agrarian crisis.
2. Social Structure
From 1834 onwards, estates were replaced by classes, though the nobility persisted and grew with new appointments, often from wealthy bourgeois families. Intermarriage between old nobility and wealthy commoners continued. Some noble families experienced financial decline, like the Duke of Osuna. The nobility no longer held birthright privileges, and the disentailment of their properties forced them to adapt to a capitalist system. Some nobles pursued military careers, while others, like Espartero, Narvaez, and Serrano, gained noble titles through military achievements.
Landowners were affected by political and economic changes, particularly the secularization of monks and the suppression of monasteries. Many former monks became parish priests. The Church lost property but received an annual salary from the state and maintained control over education. It adopted a defensive stance against modern culture and philosophy, focusing on condemning Freemasonry and Krausism. Intellectual figures within the Church were scarce, with a notable exception being Menéndez Pelayo.
The Spanish bourgeoisie was less developed than its European counterparts, concentrated mainly in Catalonia, Madrid, and Bilbao. Figures like the Marquis of Salamanca exemplified the entrepreneurial spirit. Entrepreneurial dynasties emerged, such as the Ibarra family in Vizcaya and Seville. Academics were few, and many sought state employment. The lower middle class comprised public employees, artisans facing factory competition, and peasant proprietors.
Over 60% of the population lived in poverty, including over a million day laborers and factory workers enduring long working hours and poor living conditions. Unskilled craftsmen and other workers also faced difficult circumstances.
2.1 Culture and Art
a) Culture
Culture transitioned from Romanticism to Realism, reflected in the shift from lyrical poetry and emotional drama to novels depicting reality. Romantic poetry, however, continued to flourish with figures like Bécquer. Notable novelists included Galdós, Valera, Valdés, and Leopoldo Alas (Clarín). Krausism, imported by Sanz del Río, promoted free institutions of learning, influencing figures like Giner de los Ríos and Gumersindo de Azcárate.
b) Art
Neoclassicism remained the official style (e.g., Palace of the Courts), with the emergence of Neo-Gothic architecture. Sculpture declined from neoclassical models, while painting focused on historical themes. New architectural styles appeared towards the end of the century, notably with Gaudí.