19th Century Spain: Agricultural and Social Transformations
1. Introduction: The 19th Century in Spain
The 19th century in Spain was marked by industrialization, leading to increased production. By the end of the century, capitalist social relations had consolidated. The Spain of 1900 differed greatly from that of 1800, with significant changes in the economy and society. Small farms gave way to populous cities with markets and theaters, reflecting a modernizing society. The clergy lost privileges, and new social classes emerged.
2. Agricultural Transformations: Stagnation and Progress
Agricultural changes were slow, characterized by crises like bad harvests and livestock mortality. These issues highlighted the inability to manage surpluses effectively.
2.1. Agricultural Protectionism
Exterior competition increased, leading to protected acreage and production. Liberalizing laws were also implemented, along with the use of new fertilizers. Farmers shifted from less profitable cereal crops to reduce costs and compete with Russian and American grain.
2.2. Changes in Agricultural Processes (1820-1869)
- Adaptation to national and international markets (grapes and citrus).
- Climate adjustment. North: potatoes and corn; Castile and Andalusia: cereals and vines; Mediterranean: citrus.
- Increased acreage and overall production, but decreased yields. Cereals increased by 50%, and vines tripled.
2.3. Main Crops
2.3.1. Cereals:
Surface area increased, but crops remained irregular. The creation of railways improved connectivity. Tariffs on foreign grain hurt the general population.
2.3.2. Vines:
Surface area tripled, spreading inwards. Wine became Spain’s main export.
2.3.3. Olives:
Maintained by Hispano-American demand. Citrus fruits thrived in the east, with improved irrigation and fertilizers, tripling exports.
Overall, there was a lack of investment and technical improvement in agriculture.
3. The Double Disentailment: Ecclesiastical and Civil
3.1. Background
Enlightenment ideals influenced perspectives on land ownership. Spanish lands were often poorly exploited. The state, burdened by war expenses, turned to secularizing Church properties through public auctions. This included properties of the Society of Jesus and other institutions. Debt continued to grow, and land often ended up in the hands of large landowners. During Joseph Bonaparte’s reign, there was secularization of clergy and aristocratic properties. The Cortes of Cádiz initiated a timid disentailment of goods from religious communities, the Inquisition, Jesuits, and military orders. Half of the lands were intended for municipalities, but Ferdinand VII’s return interrupted this process.
3.2. Mendizábal’s Disentailment
Under the Old Regime, land was held by the Church, nobility, or municipalities, with little radical exploitation. Disentailment aimed to transfer state land to other owners for better utilization. Mendizábal’s plan focused on Church properties, enacting a series of laws. It targeted regular clergy properties and connected to a broader plan for clerical reform. Mendizábal’s approach radicalized earlier liberal objectives, driven by the state’s economic needs during the Carlist War. It sought to address finances, debt, and agrarian reform, benefiting farmers and reforming the Church. This broadened the social base of the liberal regime. Two decrees declared real estate, rents, and religious institutions’ assets as national property for public auction. Mendizábal hoped this would benefit farmers, but the land often went to wealthy buyers.
3.2.1. Consequences:
Mendizábal’s seizure was seen by some as a failure, turning against the regime. The Church, farmers, liberals, and intellectuals felt betrayed. The primary beneficiary was the Treasury.
3.3. Further Disentailment of Church Property
Espartero completed the disentailment process. Regulations affected properties declared national and auctioned. Another aspect addressed the Church’s needs and its ministers, with contributions from religion and state. This lasted for three years, interrupted by Narváez, and later resumed under Pascual Madoz.
3.4. Madoz’s Civil Disentailment
Madoz’s disentailment completed Mendizábal’s work, compensating the Church with debt securities and transferring real property to address state debt. This law, in effect for 14 months, targeted municipal properties, arguing for social rebalancing. Isabel II initially vetoed it, but its passage had serious consequences for municipalities, limiting farmers’ access to land.
3.5. Consequences of the Double Disentailment
- Social: No significant rise of a peasant middle class; economic power of the Church and nobility weakened; Church property transferred to the bourgeoisie; increased misery for farmers; emergence of a new oligarchy.
- Economic: Increased cultivated land, but no technical renovation; no true agrarian revolution; municipalities lost income.