19th Century Spain: A Political and Economic Transformation
Introduction
The 19th century was a period of profound transformation for Spain, marked by the dismantling of the Old Regime’s political, economic, and social structures.
Shift from Absolutism to Liberalism
The transition from absolutism to a liberal system was fraught with instability, characterized by civil wars and military coups.
Economic Modernization
Spain’s economic modernization lagged behind other European nations, with the country remaining predominantly agrarian until the 20th century.
Social Changes
While the stratified society of the Old Regime gradually eroded, noble landowners retained significant influence. The bourgeoisie and proletariat experienced limited growth, and the majority of the population remained peasants.
Reign of Carlos IV (1788-1808)
Carlos IV’s reign was marked by absolute power and the influence of Manuel Godoy. The French Revolution and subsequent Napoleonic Wars had a significant impact on Spain.
- 1793: Spain declared war on France following the execution of Louis XVI.
- Spain and France later formed an alliance against Britain, leading to the Battle of Trafalgar (1805).
- Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807): Agreement between Spain and France to invade and divide Portugal.
Napoleon’s troops entered Spain under the pretext of invading Portugal, occupying strategic cities and sparking popular unrest.
Motín de Aranjuez (1808)
The Mutiny of Aranjuez forced Carlos IV to dismiss Godoy and abdicate in favor of his son, Fernando VII.
Abdications of Bayonne (1808)
Napoleon coerced both Carlos IV and Fernando VII to renounce the throne, installing his brother Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. This move was met with widespread resistance from the Spanish people, known as “patriots.”
Dos de Mayo Uprising (1808)
The uprising in Madrid against French occupation on May 2, 1808, marked the beginning of the Peninsular War.
Peninsular War (1808-1814)
The Peninsular War, also known as the Spanish War of Independence, was fought between Spain, with the support of Britain and Portugal, against Napoleon’s French Empire.
Phases of the War
- First Phase (1808): French advance halted by popular resistance and the Spanish victory at the Battle of Bailén.
- Second Phase (1808-1812): Napoleon’s reinforcements allowed France to regain control of most of Spain.
- Third Phase (1812-1814): The Spanish victory at the Battle of Arapiles (1812), coupled with Napoleon’s setbacks in Russia and British support, turned the tide in favor of Spain.
The French army gradually retreated, and the war concluded with the Treaty of Valençay (1813), recognizing Fernando VII as King of Spain.
Cortes of Cádiz (1810-1814)
During the Peninsular War, a liberal revolution unfolded in Spain. The Cortes of Cádiz, a constituent assembly, convened in Cádiz and implemented significant reforms, culminating in the Spanish Constitution of 1812 (“La Pepa”).
Key Reforms and the Constitution of 1812
- Freedom of the press
- Abolition of guilds, feudal rights, and the Inquisition
- National sovereignty
- Parliamentary monarchy
- Separation of powers
- Equality before the law
- Individual rights
- Universal male suffrage (indirect)
- Catholicism as the state religion
The Constitution of 1812 marked the end of the Old Regime and the establishment of a liberal political system in Spain.
Reign of Fernando VII (1814-1833)
Fernando VII’s reign was characterized by political turmoil and a struggle between absolutism and liberalism.
Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820)
Upon his return to Spain, Fernando VII rejected the Constitution of 1812 and reinstated absolutism, leading to the persecution of liberals.
Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
The military uprising led by Rafael del Riego forced Fernando VII to accept the Constitution of 1812 and liberal reforms.
Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
With the support of the Holy Alliance, Fernando VII restored absolutism and initiated a period of repression against liberals.
Succession Crisis and the First Carlist War (1833-1839)
The repeal of the Salic Law, allowing women to inherit the throne, led to a succession crisis and the First Carlist War between supporters of Fernando VII’s daughter, Isabel II (liberals), and his brother, Carlos (absolutists). The liberals emerged victorious, securing Isabel II’s reign.
Spanish American Wars of Independence
Inspired by liberal and nationalist ideals, and fueled by dissatisfaction with Spanish rule, the Spanish American colonies fought for and achieved independence during the early 19th century. By 1825, Spain had lost most of its American colonies, with the exception of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
Reign of Isabel II (1833-1868)
Isabel II’s reign saw the consolidation of liberalism in Spain, but also persistent political instability.
Characteristics of Isabel II’s Reign
- End of absolutism and the Old Regime
- Constitutional monarchy
- Equality before the law
- Separation of powers
- Political instability due to rivalries between moderate and progressive liberals
- Four constitutions enacted during her reign
Rise of New Political Parties
Towards the end of Isabel II’s reign, new political parties emerged, including democrats and republicans, who opposed the existing liberal regime. These parties, along with progressive liberals, signed the Pact of Ostend, leading to the Glorious Revolution (1868) and Isabel II’s exile.
Sexenio Democrático (1868-1874)
The Sexenio Democrático was a period of democratic experimentation in Spain following the Glorious Revolution.
Monarchy of Amadeo I
Amadeo I of Savoy was appointed king by the Cortes but faced opposition from various factions and eventually abdicated.
First Spanish Republic (1873)
The First Spanish Republic was short-lived and plagued by internal conflicts, including the war in Cuba, cantonalism, and another Carlist War. A military coup in 1874 restored the monarchy under Alfonso XII.
Economic Changes in 19th Century Spain
Population Growth and Migration
Spain experienced slow and moderate population growth compared to other industrializing nations. Internal migrations led to population concentration in peripheral regions and a predominantly rural population.
Agriculture and Land Reforms
Spain remained an agrarian economy throughout the 19th century. Liberal reforms aimed to transform land ownership through disentailment and the abolition of feudalism. While these measures had some positive effects, they ultimately failed to address the issue of land distribution, benefiting the wealthy while leaving many peasants landless and impoverished.
Definitions
- Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807): Agreement between Spain and France to invade and divide Portugal.
- Treaty of Valençay (1813): Peace treaty ending the Peninsular War and recognizing Fernando VII as King of Spain.
- Cantonalism: Revolutionary movement advocating for a confederation of independent cantons (cities) in Spain.
- Afrancesados: Supporters of Joseph Bonaparte during the Peninsular War.
- Motín de Aranjuez (1808): Uprising against Carlos IV and Manuel Godoy, leading to Carlos IV’s abdication.