19th Century Social Change: Reforms, Darwin, Durkheim
19th Century Societal Transformation
In poorer environments, overcrowding facilitated the spread of diseases, food shortages, and educational deficits. As societal issues escalated, people seemed to be heading towards a metaphorical hell, with moral decay, often fueled by excessive alcohol consumption, crime, and violence. The urgent need for education became apparent.
Education as a Catalyst for Change
Unlike other societal elements, education does not operate within a free market, necessitating legislative intervention. This recognition led to the 1881 educational reforms by Jules Ferry in France, establishing public schooling for every child. These reforms, in turn, fostered societal consent, opinion formation, and a heightened awareness of consequences, thereby reducing violent incidents.
Darwin’s Influence and Social Implications
Charles Darwin’s 1859 publication, On the Origin of Species, introduced the concept of natural selection, humorously prompting the question of whether we all descend from monkeys. This notion evolved into Social Darwinism, which suggested that certain races or nations were inherently superior to others, contributing to racial tensions during this era, notably between whites and Asians.
The materialistic society of the time was marked by a competitive pursuit of wealth and economic prosperity, aiming for an abundance of resources for all. Darwin’s theory also introduced classifications of “sound” and “unsound” populations, suggesting that controlling the growth of the “unsound” or unfit through birth rate management was necessary.
Eugenics and Population Debates
Eugenics emerged as a significant concept, promoting the idea of enhancing the genetic quality of the human race, which some saw as a science for improving humanity. This period also saw legal reforms related to abortion and contraception, sparking debates across both conservative and radical spectrums.
Women’s Rights and Emancipation
The 19th century is often heralded as the beginning of the women’s emancipation movement. Women’s liberation movements gained momentum, partly influenced by the realization that having fewer children could lead to better nutrition, housing, and education. Education was recognized as the key to a harmonious society and a deeper understanding of human behavior.
In a society where men held dominant roles, often acting as unquestioned leaders within their homes and communities, these positions of power sometimes led to violent behavior. Women, in response, mounted active and courageous protests, even though they frequently faced mockery and disdain from their male counterparts.
This era compelled women to invest more time and energy into advocating for political and social changes, which was especially challenging given the complexities of being a woman at the time. Childbirth carried significant risks, domestic violence was prevalent, and women had virtually no legal rights or opportunities for independence, making divorce an unlikely possibility.
The Temperance Movement and Prohibition
In the United States, the widespread availability of liquor and intoxicating beverages such as spirits had a profound effect on social behavior, often driving men to spend much of their time in saloons. By the year 1830, it was recorded that the average man over the age of 50 consumed 88 bottles of whiskey annually. This excessive alcohol consumption contributed to a broader moral decline, setting the stage for the Temperance Movement and the eventual introduction of Prohibition.
By the late 19th century, movements aimed at curtailing the use of alcohol gained momentum, culminating in the enactment of Prohibition in the 1920s, formalized by a constitutional amendment ratified in 1933. Despite these laws, Prohibition led to a surge in illegal activities as individuals and groups sought ways to bypass regulations, exemplified by bar owners and German brewers who creatively smuggled alcohol into the U.S. concealed within barrels of sugar.
The implementation of Prohibition highlighted the inherent challenges of enforcing laws that were intended to reflect the will of the people but often resulted in unintended consequences, echoing sentiments akin to the dystopian surveillance of “Big Brother is watching you.”
Sociological Insights: Émile Durkheim
The period was also rife with debates concerning science, morality, and the tensions between liberty and equality. Amid these societal shifts, sociologist Émile Durkheim made significant contributions to understanding social cohesion through his theories on mechanical and organic solidarity.
Durkheim posited that pre-industrial societies were characterized by what he called mechanical solidarity, where there existed a strong collective conscience that bound individuals together through shared values and common tasks. In these settings, individuals often performed interdependent roles within simple economic structures, such as those found in artisanal workshops or farming communities.
As the 19th century progressed, Durkheim observed a transition to what he termed organic solidarity in industrialized societies.