19th Century Nation-Building & Political Shifts
Nationalism and the Rise of Nation-States
The creation of national states was a slow process that began in the era of revolutions. In the 19th century, the word ‘nation’ evolved from simply referring to a group of people born in the same place to acquiring a political dimension. Many began to advocate for state boundaries to coincide with racial, linguistic, and historical boundaries. Nationalist ideologues led both unification processes of divided populations and disintegration processes of empires that encompassed many different nationalities.
Italian Unification
Initial Situation: A Mosaic of States
The Italian peninsula was divided into several states in the 19th century. Parts of Italy were even under foreign rule. The existence of a common language formed the basis for calls for unity. Nationalist revolts occurred during the revolutions of the first half of the 19th century, but were unsuccessful. Finally, the unification initiative came from the Kingdom of Piedmont, led by its Prime Minister, Cavour, who secured the support of French Emperor Napoleon III for Italian claims.
Unification Process
In 1859, the Franco-Piedmontese army defeated the Austrians at Magenta and Solferino. After achieving peace in the north, the Republican Garibaldi, leading a volunteer army, conquered the southern states. Then, Piedmontese troops occupied central Italy to prevent Garibaldi from entering Rome. In 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, with Victor Emmanuel II, King of Piedmont, as its first king. Only Venice and the Papal States remained outside the kingdom, joining in 1866 and 1870, respectively.
German Unification
The Progressive Affirmation of Prussia
In 1815, the German territory was divided into 39 states. The Congress of Vienna grouped them under the so-called German Confederation, presided over by Austria. The most powerful state, Prussia, became the focus of unification. In 1834, Prussia organized a customs union that excluded Austria. Nationalism further advanced during the 1848 revolution when a parliament met in Frankfurt and offered the crown of a unified Germany to the King of Prussia, which he refused.
The Birth of a Great Power
Starting in 1862, Prussian King Wilhelm I and Chancellor Bismarck accelerated the unification process through military means. By 1866, after the victory over Austria at the Battle of Sadowa, Prussia created the North German Confederation. In 1870, after the victory over France at the Battle of Sedan, the southern German states joined the confederation. In 1871, the German Empire, the Second Reich, was born, with William I as Emperor. Germany became a great power.
Political Systems in the Second Half of the 19th Century
Authoritarian Political Systems
Russian Absolute Monarchy
The Tsar maintained a strict absolutist rule, and serfdom existed until 1861. The nobility and the official Orthodox Church monopolized power and positions. The economy was primarily agricultural with limited industrialization. After the 1905 Revolution, a parliament (Duma) was established. Shortly after, the Tsar regained power.
German Federal Regime
After reunification, a constitution was approved in 1871, which recognized a federal system. The 25 states, or Länder, retained their laws and taxes, while the imperial government controlled foreign relations, military, and economic policy. The Parliament (Reichstag), elected by universal male suffrage, passed laws and state budgets but could not challenge the decisions of the chancellor and the emperor. Germany implemented the most advanced social policy in the world, establishing health insurance, retirement pensions, and unemployment benefits (1883).
Austrian Empire
Francis Joseph was Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. Austria and Hungary each had its own government and parliament but shared foreign policy, education, and the military. Other nations within the empire—Poles, Czechs, Croats, Serbs, Romanians, and Italians—were subject to the Austrians and Hungarians, leading to national uprisings. During the 19th century, the emperor maintained control, supported by the church, the aristocracy, and the army. However, in the early 20th century, the empire began to make overtures to the Liberal Party, and in 1906, universal male suffrage was recognized.
Consolidation of Liberalism
In France and Great Britain, democracy gradually advanced with the approval of universal male suffrage and freedoms of expression and religion. Modern political parties emerged, contesting elections and initiating policies to protect the underprivileged, such as unemployment benefits and pensions.
British Model
Britain was the first country to introduce a liberal regime. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 limited the powers of the monarch and strengthened the role of Parliament, composed of two chambers: the House of Lords (members of leading families and senior clergy, whose positions were for life) and the House of Commons (elected by citizens with voting rights). The British political system evolved through gradual reforms rather than revolution. Initially, voting was restricted to those with high property ownership. Throughout the century, successive suffrage laws extended voting rights to more segments of the population. Political life centered around two parties: the Liberals (Whigs), led by Gladstone, and the Conservatives (Tories), led by Disraeli. In 1906, the Labour Party, with a socialist ideology, was formed.
French Model
19th-century French history was characterized by a succession of revolutions (1789, 1830, 1848) and alternating political systems: conservative monarchies between 1815 and 1848, the Second Republic between 1848 and 1851, the Second Empire under Napoleon III between 1851 and 1870, and the final establishment of the Third Republic after 1880. The Third Republic consolidated liberal democracy.