19th Century Liberalism and Revolutions: A Historical Overview
Introduction
The bourgeoisie’s rise to political power through the bourgeois revolution was a complex process. Following the French Revolution and Napoleon’s defeat, supporters of the Ancien Régime attempted to restore it through the Congress of Vienna (1815). However, this attempt was short-lived as the bourgeoisie initiated a series of revolutionary waves (1820, 1830, 1848) to seize power. Liberalism played a crucial role in these revolutions, and nationalist ideology emerged, inspiring people within empires to seek their national identity. Notable examples include Italy and Germany, which culminated in the formation of these two new countries in 1870. This process occurred across Western Europe, with the first example being the thirteen British colonies gaining independence and forming the USA. While significant, this event lacked the opposition of nobility or clergy, making it less impactful in the broader context.
Liberalism
Liberalism, an ideology created by the bourgeoisie to maintain political and economic power, initially restricted suffrage through census requirements to protect their interests. This varied throughout the 19th century. Liberalism encompassed several types of freedoms:
- Political: Individuals are citizens with rights enshrined in legal codes, emphasizing the separation of powers (executive, legislative, judicial), the supremacy of the constitution, equality before the law, and national sovereignty residing in the people.
- Intellectual: A spirit of tolerance and reconciliation based on freedom of thought and religious freedom.
- Economic: Based on Adam Smith’s ideas, it opposed state interventionism, advocating for private enterprise, the pursuit of wealth, competition, inviolable private property, and freedom of trade and industry.
Congress of Vienna (1815)
The Congress of Vienna aimed to restore the pre-French Revolution political, social, and territorial order. The powers that defeated Napoleon, including France, participated. Its conservative ideology opposed liberalism and nationalism, favoring a return to the Ancien Régime. Key outcomes included:
- Legitimacy: Restoration of historical dynasties’ right to rule.
- Congresses: The birth of modern diplomacy for resolving international conflicts.
- International Balance: Absolutism was reinstated, the map of Europe redrawn, and buffer states created around France.
- Holy Alliance: An international armed force to intervene against challenges to the restored order.
U.S. Independence
Several factors led to the American Revolution:
- Increased taxes on colonists.
- Trade and industry restrictions.
- The spread of liberal ideas demanding greater autonomy.
The Boston Tea Party (1773), where colonists destroyed British tea and British troops fired on the crowd, marked a turning point. The First Continental Congress (1774) petitioned the Crown for redress of grievances but was rejected. The Second Continental Congress (1775) authorized resistance against British aggression, and in 1776, drafted the Virginia Declaration of Rights, inspired by liberal ideology. On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence, drafted by Thomas Jefferson, was approved. The War of Independence (1776-1783) ensued, with France and Spain supporting the colonies against England. Led by George Washington, the American troops secured victories at Monmouth, Saratoga, and Yorktown, leading to the colonists’ victory. The Treaty of Versailles (1783) recognized the independence of the thirteen colonies, forming the United States of America. The Constitution, adopted in 1787, incorporated liberal principles and individual rights and freedoms, serving as a model for European liberals. The new federal state was led by George Washington, its first president.
Napoleonic Europe
From the establishment of the Consulate, power concentrated in Napoleon Bonaparte, who, as First Consul, held near-absolute authority. Backed by the military and upper classes, he consolidated his power, becoming Consul for Life in 1802 and Emperor in 1804 after a referendum, establishing a personal rule. While his authoritarian government consolidated some revolutionary gains, it was largely propagandistic. The legislature and courts were subservient to Napoleon, negating the separation of powers. Napoleon’s expanding empire spread revolutionary ideas across Europe. However, the empire soon faced crises due to nationalist and liberal ideas, the strain of war, and the disastrous Russian campaign. Military exhaustion after the Russian debacle led to defeat at Leipzig (1813). Facing enemy offensives, Napoleon abdicated in 1814, replaced by King Louis XVIII. Napoleon escaped from exile on Elba and briefly regained power during the Hundred Days War (March-June 1815). Defeated at Waterloo, he was exiled to Saint Helena, where he died in 1821, and Louis XVIII was restored to the throne.