19th Century Liberal & Nationalist Revolutions in Europe
The Liberal and Nationalist Revolutions
1820
In Spain, liberal military commander Rafael del Riego’s pronouncement forced Ferdinand VII to accept the Constitution of 1812. The three-year period starting in 1820 saw liberal revolts of the Carbonari in Italy, which forced Ferdinand I to concede a constitution and establish a parliament. These movements did not have enough social support, and the Holy Alliance agreed to use military force. In Russia, the Decembrist movement also failed. Portugal implemented a constitutional monarchy. Only Greece achieved its independence from the Ottoman Empire.
1830
The process began in France. The policies of Charles X provoked a popular uprising that overthrew him, and Louis-Philippe of Orleans was crowned king. This example extended to other areas such as Belgium and Poland.
1848
The revolutions of this year were driven by:
- The economic crisis that began in 1847.
- The activity of nationalist groups.
- The aspirations of liberals and the upper-middle class for political participation.
In France, the bourgeois regime established in 1830 faced growing opposition demanding democratization. The revolts in Italy were initially successful. In Austria, the revolt of students and workers led to the dismissal of Metternich and the abdication of Ferdinand I. In the German Confederation, Frederick William IV made reformist concessions, and the Frankfurt Parliament sparked hopes for national unity.
The Conservative Reaction
The alliance between the democrats, the bourgeoisie, and the working class was broken. Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was elected president and proclaimed himself Emperor Napoleon III. In Italy, the Austrian Empire restored the previous situation and returned the Pope to power with French aid. In the new Austrian Empire, the emperor constituted a parliament with limited powers. The German Confederation suppressed the rebellions. The Frankfurt Assembly approved a constitution that did not come into effect because Frederick William IV refused to accept it. The Assembly disbanded, and Prussia led the conservative reaction.
Balance of the Revolutions of 1848
The achievements were initially limited but had great significance. In France, universal male suffrage was secured. In the Austrian Empire, serfdom was abolished. In the German states, the strength of Prussia was tested, and the Frankfurt Assembly laid the groundwork for future unification. Democratic ideas spread throughout Europe, and nationalist movements gained momentum. The remnants of feudalism were abolished.
The Unification of Italy and Germany
The Unification of Italy
The origins of Italian unification can be traced back to the mid-19th century. Italy was divided into several states, but nationalist ideas grew during the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. Resistance to Austria and a sense of belonging to a common Italian space emerged. Secret societies with a nationalist character were created. The idea of a unified Italy gained ground. Three models of unification were proposed: a republic, a confederation of states under the papacy, and a unified monarchy centered around Piedmont-Sardinia. The latter was ultimately imposed.
Stages of Unification
- The Armistice of Villafranca granted Lombardy to Piedmont.
- In 1860-1861, Modena, Tuscany, Parma, Naples, and Sicily were incorporated.
- The final annexations of Venice and Rome occurred after the defeat of Austria in the Austro-Prussian War and the Franco-Prussian War, respectively.
Consequences of Unification
Unification resulted in the application of Piedmont’s political system to all of Italy. The new kingdom faced problems such as hostility with the Church and the imbalance between the North and the South.
The Origins of German Unification
In Germany, there were 39 states. The drive for unification presented two options: a Greater Germany led by Austria or a smaller Germany led by Prussia that excluded Austria. Prussian and Austrian rivalry influenced the process.
The Stages
- The Austro-Prussian War (also known as the Seven Weeks’ War): Prussia’s decisive victory over Austria at the Battle of Königgrätz led to Austria’s exclusion from the unification process.
- The Franco-Prussian War: Prussia’s victory over France strengthened Prussia’s position and allowed it to attract other German states. Franco-Prussian rivalry intensified.
Prussia led the conservative reaction. The revolutions of 1848 had limited initial success but had great significance. In France, universal male suffrage was secured. In the Austrian Empire, serfdom was abolished. In the German states, Prussia’s strength was tested, and the Frankfurt Assembly laid the groundwork for future unification. Democratic ideas spread throughout Europe, and nationalist movements gained momentum. The remnants of feudalism were abolished.
The origins of Italian unification can be traced back to the mid-19th century. Italy was divided into several states, but nationalist ideas grew during the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. Resistance to Austria and a sense of belonging to a common Italian space emerged. Secret societies with a nationalist character were created. The idea of a unified Italy gained ground. Three models of unification were proposed: a republic, a confederation of states under the papacy, and a unified monarchy centered around Piedmont-Sardinia. The latter was ultimately imposed.
Stages of Unification
- The Armistice of Villafranca granted Lombardy to Piedmont.
- In 1860-1861, Modena, Tuscany, Parma, Naples, and Sicily were incorporated.
- The final annexations of Venice and Rome occurred after the defeat of Austria in the Austro-Prussian War and the Franco-Prussian War, respectively.
Consequences of Unification
Unification resulted in the application of Piedmont’s political system to all of Italy. The new kingdom faced problems such as hostility with the Church and the imbalance between the North and the South.
The Origins of German Unification
In Germany, there were 39 states. The drive for unification presented two options: a Greater Germany led by Austria or a smaller Germany led by Prussia that excluded Austria. Prussian and Austrian rivalry influenced the process.
The Stages
- The Austro-Prussian War (also known as the Seven Weeks’ War): Prussia’s decisive victory over Austria at the Battle of Königgrätz led to Austria’s exclusion from the unification process.
- The Franco-Prussian War: Prussia’s victory over France strengthened Prussia’s position and allowed it to attract other German states. Franco-Prussian rivalry intensified.