19th Century Imperialism: Causes, Conflicts, and Political Opposition
Causes of 19th Century Imperialism
In the second half of the 19th century, some European powers, and shortly after, the United States and Japan, dominated areas of the planet, giving rise to modern imperialism. Different causes contributed to this phenomenon:
Economic Reasons
The process of industrialization undertaken by the powers during the 19th century generated new needs for the functioning of the capitalist model, including:
- The search for markets to dispose of their products.
- The need for raw materials and energy sources for their industries.
Social Causes
The European demographic expansion in the 19th century led to the migration of millions of people to overseas territories in search of new economic opportunities.
Political Reasons
In an era where rivalry grew between the powers, political motivation played an important role:
- The search for national prestige through the possession of territories.
- Territorial rivalries between the powers, which made some areas occupied to prevent enemy advance.
Ideological Reasons
Ideological reasons played a key role, especially in the face of public opinion, including the nationalism of the time and belief in the superiority of the white race.
Causes of Conflict
Several factors contributed to conflict during this period:
Socioeconomic Factors
- Economic competition among industrial countries, like the rivalry between Germany and the UK, or the competition of French and German capital in Russia.
Political Factors
- Basic territorial rivalries, such as the confrontation between Germany and France for Alsace and Lorraine.
- Balkan nationalism.
- Tension between Italy and Austria for claims on so-called Italian irredentist territories.
- Rivalries and aspirations raised by the major imperialist powers.
Diplomatic Failures
The configuration of two locked alliances meant that the participation of any of the partners in a conflict would drag its allies to war. The failure of diplomacy was noted in the second peace conference, which failed to prevent the reduction of the arms race.
Ideological Factors
Technological advances produced by industrialization and military sophistication achieved during the arms race introduced confidence in victory in public opinion. All of this took place in a time of extreme nationalism, in which the reaffirmation of the nation was achieved through the negation of the contrary.
The Beginning of Political Opposition in Russia
Despite the difficulties imposed by the Tsarist authoritarianism and the absence of an intellectual class leader, Russian political groups staged changes that led to the disappearance of the autocratic Tsarist system:
- Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets): Belonged to urban middle-class minorities.
- Socialist Revolutionary Party: Represented the interests of the Russian peasantry.
- Russian Social Democratic Labor Party: Emerged from Marxist principles in 1898 and represented the industrial workers and intellectual sectors of society. In 1903, there was a division into two streams:
- Mensheviks: Moderate socialists who were ready to collaborate with the bourgeoisie to end the Tsarist autocracy and establish a constitutional regime. Their leader was Kerensky.
- Bolsheviks: Represented the most radical sectors of socialism, denying any collaboration with the Liberals and posed an immediate application of revolutionary ideals. Their leader was Lenin.