19th Century Imperialism: Africa, Asia, and the Americas
Scramble for Africa
By the mid-nineteenth century, Africa was largely unknown to Europeans, yet it held a strong allure for adventurers and scientists. After 1880, exploration and occupation of Africa intensified, focusing on river basins.
North Africa
France occupied Algeria and Tunisia, establishing a protectorate in Morocco with Spain. Britain occupied Egypt and the Suez Canal to control the route to Asia. Italy occupied Libya.
West Africa
Liberia was the only independent state. The Pontic steppe coast was occupied by French, Spanish, German, Portuguese, and English forces.
Congo Basin
Stanley opened a route through the Congo River to Zanzibar. Shortly after, Brazza reached the river from Gabon and settled on the right bank. Portugal claimed rights due to its presence at the river’s mouth. The Berlin Conference established a free state in the Congo, which was then occupied by Belgium.
East Africa
Great Britain controlled the Nile Valley, Kenya, and parts of Somalia. Italy occupied Eritrea and parts of Somalia. Germany occupied a strip along Lake Tanganyika. France established a protectorate over Madagascar.
Nile Valley
France dispatched an expedition from Chad to the Nile, leading to British intervention and the establishment of a protectorate over Sudan.
South Africa
England established a colony at the Cape, previously occupied by the Netherlands. The British pushed inland, establishing the republics of Orange and Transvaal. The discovery of diamonds led to conflict, resulting in British control of the entire territory.
Occupation of Asia
In the nineteenth century, European powers, along with Russia, the USA, and Japan, penetrated Asia.
- British: Occupied India, expanding from ports held since the 18th century. After revolts, the British government took direct control and established a viceroy.
- France: Focused on Indochina, annexing Cochin between 1860 and 1880, the Mekong region, and establishing a protectorate over Cambodia.
- Russia: Expanded through Siberia and south, reaching the border of India and disputing control of Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet. Rivalry with China led to the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905).
- China: Remained uninvaded but served as a significant commercial outlet for European countries.
- Netherlands: Controlled Indonesia.
U.S. Imperialism
American expansionism was driven by European protectionism. Tariffs on American exports led to the idea of establishing relationships with new markets. This imperialism was justified by ideological bases.
Social Darwinism
The U.S. needed to compete with other nations to survive internationally.
Monroe Doctrine
The American continent was its natural expansion area, and the U.S. could intervene to defend its interests.
America for the U.S.
U.S. expansion focused on the Caribbean, Central and South America, and Pacific island bases to protect trade routes to Asia. Alaska was acquired.
American colonialism developed into neo-colonialism.
Japanese Expansionism
Following the Meiji Restoration, Japan modernized its economy to become an industrial power. The government pursued expansion into the Pacific coast of Asia for food, raw materials, and defense against Russia and China. Japan intervened in Korea, leading to war in 1894 and the acquisition of Formosa. Victory over Russia in Manchuria consolidated Japan’s imperial power.
Great Empires
- British: The most extensive empire, with manufactured goods shipped to colonies and raw materials imported. India was the main colony. Domains were established for British settlers. Expansion in Africa was significant.
- France: Driven by economic motives and prestige. Attempted to create a continuous empire in Africa between the Red Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, but failed. Strong presence in Indonesia. Aimed to create a linguistic and cultural community.
- Germany: Sought political prestige, settling in East Africa, Southwest Africa (Cameroon), and Pacific islands.
- Japan: Sought colonies for its surplus population and to obtain raw materials and energy sources. Expansion focused on East Asia.