19th Century Global Transformations: Society, Politics, and Empire
19th Century Global Transformations
The political landscape in the United States, marked by the discrimination against the Black population through segregationist policies, influenced the configuration of both the Republican and Democratic parties. Concurrently, U.S. overseas imperialism launched an expansionist policy in the Pacific, establishing control over Hawaii, the Philippines, and Guam. In the Caribbean, it gained control of Cuba and Puerto Rico following the Spanish-American War in 1898, and later the Panama Canal.
Meiji Japan: From Feudalism to Modernization
Prior to the Meiji Restoration, Japan existed in an almost feudal state where power resided with the Shogun. Facing the growing Western threat and recognizing the Shogun’s inability to respond effectively, various social groups promoted a coup. This led to the restoration of imperial power in 1868 under Emperor Mutsuhito, initiating a process of radical Westernization known as the Meiji Revolution. This era brought about significant reforms, establishing a highly concentrated, statist capitalism that was, however, dependent on external factors.
- Social Reforms: Feudalism and serfdom were abolished. Western customs in dress and hairstyle were widely adopted.
- Political Reforms: A new constitution was adopted in 1889, establishing a more centralized government.
Population Growth and Urbanization
During the 19th century, the world population grew by 50%. This increase was particularly notable in Europe and the United States:
- The European continent doubled its population.
- The U.S. received a large influx of immigrants.
The population increase in industrialized countries was due to their entry into a period of demographic transition. This phase was characterized by the maintenance of high birth rates coupled with a decrease in mortality rates.
Migration Patterns
Europeans migrated both within the continent, facilitated by advances in transportation and communication, and impelled by new opportunities. From 1850 onwards, transoceanic migration became significant, with primary destinations including the U.S., Brazil, Argentina, South Africa, and Australia.
Internally, a major trend was the movement from rural areas to cities. Cities grew rapidly, often without proper planning, leading to social classes being separated into distinct neighborhoods. This often resulted in immigrants experiencing a lack of adaptation, feelings of rootlessness, and marginalization.
Society: Old Classes, New Structures, and Mobility
In the 19th century, wealth became the primary criterion distinguishing individuals and social groups. The old estates were replaced by social classes, which, theoretically, were more open to personal enrichment and the pursuit of talent. The 19th century is often referred to as the “century of the bourgeoisie” due to this class benefiting most from societal changes. Society was varied and complex, with several prominent social groups:
The Aristocracy
The dominant aristocratic social group did not disappear entirely, even as many of its traditional privileges were removed. New aristocrats were also created. They largely maintained their landholdings. Those who could not marry into wealthy bourgeois families often controlled municipalities, integrated into the administration, or joined the military. Many bourgeois individuals aspired to become landowners and live off their rents, mimicking the aristocratic lifestyle.
The Bourgeoisie
Industrialization and the abolition of Old Regime privileges fueled the growth and influence of the bourgeoisie. Its key characteristics included:
- Economic Resources: The bourgeois social position stemmed from their financial, industrial, and commercial businesses, as well as agricultural properties. Many acquired land from impoverished nobles. They were urban property owners, business professionals, and colonial entrepreneurs.
- Social Standing: Their position in society was often due to high cultural qualifications and a good education. This group included senior management in administration, lawyers, engineers, and journalists. These were not hereditary professions, but their patrimony allowed their children to pursue studies or marry into noble or business-owning families.
- Home and Family: The bourgeois home, filled with expensive decorative objects, became a private space reflecting their achievements and social status. Both aristocratic and bourgeois families were typically nuclear, consisting exclusively of the father, mother, and children, with paternal authority being paramount.
- Leisure Habits: Aristocratic and bourgeois individuals frequented their own exclusive social spaces, avoiding the presence of commoners or the poor. More modest gatherings in cafes were also common.