19th Century European Revolutions & Unification of Italy & Germany
Revolutionary Wave
This period began with the Trienio Liberal (1820-1823) in Spain and spread to other Mediterranean countries, Portugal, and Spanish America, where many territories gained independence from Spain. Key features:
- Anti-absolutism and nationalism
- New forms of struggle, including liberal-inspired secret societies (Freemasons, Carbonari)
- The army’s role in supporting or suppressing uprisings
- Failure of revolutions due to internal reaction or intervention by the Holy Alliance
Spain, Portugal, and some Italian states aimed to establish liberal constitutional monarchies, often inspired by the 1812 Cadiz Constitution. Spanish America sought self-government and independence. The 1829 Treaty of Adrianople granted Greece independence from the Ottoman Empire. However, in 1830, major powers signed the London Protocol, rejecting constitutional monarchy and imposing an authoritarian regime.
1830 Revolution and Belgian Independence
Starting in France, this wave spread to Belgium and Poland. It had a liberal and nationalist component. The revolution began amid an agricultural and financial crisis. Charles X’s July Ordinances (1830) suspended press freedom, dissolved chambers, reduced the electoral base, and allowed rule by decree. The “Three Glorious Days” forced Charles X into exile. Louis-Philippe d’Orléans ruled on principles opposing the Restoration and supported revolutionary movements in Europe.
Divergences between Belgium and Holland (Catholic vs. Protestant, differing economic development) led to Belgium’s independence in 1831. Its 1831 constitution became a model for constitutional monarchies. Belgium and Switzerland were declared neutral until 1914.
Poland’s uprising against the Tsar failed due to the passivity of the clergy, peasantry, and bourgeoisie, and the neutrality of Great Britain and France. This left Poland vulnerable to Tsarist repression. Consequences:
- Repeal of the Polish constitution
- Incorporation into the Russian Empire
- Russian as the sole official language
- Russification of society and universities, persecution of Catholics
Revolutions of 1848
These liberal and nationalist uprisings were caused by agricultural and financial crises, a broken alliance between France and the UK, and the rise of the labor movement and socialist republicans. After Louis-Philippe’s abdication, the new French government introduced universal male suffrage, abolished slavery, created national workshops for the unemployed, reduced working hours to 10, and recognized the right to strike. These revolutions triumphed in France and the Kingdom of Piedmont.
This stage saw the rise of socialist movements and the end of the liberal revolutionary cycle that began in 1789. While relatively unsuccessful overall, these revolutions achieved universal male suffrage and the abolition of serfdom in Austria, and strengthened nationalism in Italian and German territories.
Italian Unification
This process unfolded in three phases:
- 1849-1860: Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia led the unification with Cavour’s help. Allied with France, they defeated Austria at Magenta and Solferino (1859). Prussia’s intervention limited gains to Lombardy. Parma, Modena, and Romagna were annexed in 1860, and a joint parliament declared Victor Emmanuel II king of Italy.
- 1860-1865: Garibaldi’s campaign, supported by nationalists and republicans, saw peasant uprisings against the King of Naples. Cavour sent Garibaldi’s “Red Shirts” to Sicily. Sicily, the southern mainland, the Marches, and Umbria joined the Kingdom of Piedmont, with Victor Emmanuel II recognized as king.
- 1865-1870: Prussia’s defeat of Austria in 1866 led to Venice joining Italy. Rome became the capital after France’s defeat at Sedan (1870). The 1929 Lateran Treaty recognized the annexation and created the Vatican City.
German Unification
1st FASE1859-1865: Customs Union of German States except Austria, to promote economic cooperation and a future political union. Prussia began a process of accelerated industrialization, strengthening the military and political reforms. 1862Bismarck is appointed chancellor of Prussia
2nd fase1866-1869: Prussia faced Austria. Taking advantage of Austria was occupied with the rebellion of the Italian states, Bismarck led the invasion of Austrian duchy of Holstein by Prussia. Austrian defeat in Sadowa1866 materialized annexation and established the Confederation of North Germany.
3rd fase1870-1871: Bismarck firm military alliance with the E. Germans south. Napoleon III was opposed to the annexation by the danger posed to k france. Sedan War France is defeated by italia1870. Germany had annexed Alsace-Lorraine. Thus was born the Second German Empire.