19th Century European Politics: From Congress of Vienna to the First Spanish Republic
1. The Congress of Vienna
The leaders of various European states met at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) where they agreed on the following measures:
- The Restoration of Absolute Monarchy: The European monarchs who had been deposed by Napoleon returned.
- Changes to Europe’s Borders: Napoleon’s conquests had transformed the map of Europe. After his defeat, another series of changes were made.
Two alliances were formed to enforce the agreements of the Congress of Vienna, and also to support Europe’s restored monarchs in the event of a revolution:
- The Holy Alliance: Russia, Austria, and Prussia.
- The Quadruple Alliance: The three members of the Holy Alliance plus Great Britain (the United Kingdom).
1.2 The Reign of Fernando VII
After the Spanish victory over Napoleon in the War of Independence, Joseph (Napoleon’s brother) left Spain, and Fernando VII returned to the Spanish throne. His reign can be divided into three periods.
The Restoration of Absolutism
He was supported by absolutists who demanded the return to the political system of the Ancient Regime. Fernando VII abolished the Constitution of 1812 and ruled as an absolute monarch.
The Liberal Period (Revolution of 1820)
Some members of the Spanish military rebelled against this return to absolutism in 1820. There was a successful revolt led by Riego. As a result, the king restored the liberal Constitution of 1812 and with it, the rights and freedoms that had been suppressed.
The Victory of Absolutism
In 1823, Fernando VII asked the Holy Alliance to assist him in re-establishing absolutism. This decision led to more revolts, but this time they were not successful.
At the end of his reign, Fernando VII proclaimed his Pragmatic Sanction. This allowed Isabel to become Queen after his death. The Pragmatic Sanction replaced Salic Law, which had excluded females from the line of succession.
Under Salic Law, Fernando’s heir would have been his brother Carlos. However, the Pragmatic Sanction prevented Carlos from becoming king and became a source of conflict during the Carlist Wars (1833-1840, 1846-1849, and 1872-1876).
2. The Rise of Liberalism and Nationalism
The political revolutions that took place during the first half of the 19th century brought the final end to absolute monarchy in Europe. Most of those revolutionary movements were based on liberal and nationalist ideologies. However, the Revolutions of 1848 aimed to establish democracy as well:
- In Spain, there were liberal revolutions that aimed to establish constitutional monarchies.
- Greece won its independence from the Ottoman Empire through a liberal and nationalist revolution.
In 1830, new revolutions broke out:
- In France, a liberal revolution established a constitutional monarchy.
- In Belgium, a nationalist revolution gained independence from the Netherlands, to which Belgium had been united by the Congress of Vienna.
3. Italian and German Unification
Until the mid-19th century, modern-day Italy and Germany were divided into numerous independent states. However, in both cases, nationalist movements emerged during the first half of the 19th century. As a result of their efforts, these states were unified to form two new nation-states.
Italian Unification
The unification process was initiated by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1859. After gaining support from France, King Victor Emmanuel II and his prime minister Cavour fought successfully against Austria. As a result, the Austrians were expelled from Lombardy, a northern region of Italy.
After that, the Piedmontese gradually conquered and annexed the rest of the Italian Peninsula with the help of Garibaldi, including Venetia and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The unification process ended in 1871. Rome was annexed in 1870 and became the capital city of the new state in 1871.
German Unification
Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian chancellor (prime minister), began the German unification process with a conflict with Denmark in 1864. After defeating Denmark, Prussia further increased its control and influence in northern Germany following the 1866 Austro-Prussian War.
Although France opposed this expansion of Prussian influence, it was defeated in the 1870-1871 Franco-Prussian War. As a result of the war, France had to surrender the region of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. Bismarck then established the Second Reich, or German Empire, with Wilhelm I as its Kaiser. This was the end of the process of German unification.
4. Spain: From Liberal Monarchy to Republic
4.1 The Reign of Isabel II
The reign of Isabel II (1843-1868) marked the end of absolutism in Spain and the establishment of a liberal constitutional monarchy.
- Although the monarch had considerable power, this power was limited by the constitution.
- Isabel II had the support of two liberal political parties:
- The Moderate Liberal Party, who favored a stronger monarchy.
- The Progressive Party, who wanted to limit royal authority.
- During Isabel II’s reign, various new constitutions were proposed and limited male suffrage was established.
- The military participated in politics, forming part of the government and staging revolts to acquire more power.
When Isabel II was a child, two regents governed in her place: her mother, María Cristina, and General Espartero. During María Cristina’s regency, the First Carlist War took place (1833-1840).
The Carlist Wars were military conflicts between supporters of Isabel II and those who believed that her uncle Carlos was the legitimate heir to the Spanish throne.
Political Problems
When Isabel reached the age of majority, she had to deal with several political problems. She had to deal with new political parties that challenged the monarchy:
- The Democratic Party, which demanded universal manhood suffrage.
- The Republican Party, which wanted to establish a republic.
Economic Problems
To solve Spain’s economic problems, Isabel II’s government expropriated land from the nobility, the church, and local governments. These lands were then sold to the highest bidder at public auctions.
This helped to pay the state’s debts and also broke up many of the large agricultural estates, known as latifundios, into smaller, more productive farms. However, these expropriations had negative consequences for farmers:
- Small farmers did not have enough money to buy expropriated properties; they were bought by rich members of the bourgeoisie.
- Many common lands were also sold.
- Many religious institutions ceased to provide the poor with charity and assistance.
Finally, in 1868, there was a military uprising and the queen was forced to go into exile in France. This event marked the beginning of a new period in Spanish politics.
4.2 The Glorious Revolution (1868-1874)
The Glorious Revolution was the first attempt to establish democracy in Spain. During this period, the Constitution of 1869 was approved. It was the most progressive Spanish constitution of the 19th century because it established universal manhood suffrage, as well as protecting other rights and freedoms.
The Glorious Revolution was followed by the Six Revolutionary Years.
The Democratic Monarchy
The Italian Amadeo of Savoy became king of Spain. However, he had to abdicate because both republicans and Carlists rejected him. Moreover, the supporters of Alfonso (the legitimate heir of Isabel II) were also opposed to him.
The First Republic (1873-1874)
Spain had a republican government for the first time. However, the First Republic faced many problems:
- Demands for greater regional autonomy in Andalusia, Levante, and Catalonia.
- The Third Carlist War (1872-1876).
- War in Cuba.
During the Six Revolutionary Years, monetary union was achieved in Spain and the peseta became the country’s official currency.
However, in December 1874, there was another military uprising. This brought about the restoration of the monarchy, the return of the Bourbon dynasty to power, and the end of the First Republic.