19th-Century European Nationalism: Italy and Germany
The Rise of Nationalism in 19th-Century Europe
Nationalism developed in the 19th century when people who shared the same culture and language began to think of themselves as a ‘nation’. At the same time, many nationalists wanted political boundaries to coincide with religious, ethnic, and linguistic boundaries. In this way, a nation would live in a single country: a nation-state. Nationalism greatly influenced the political history of Europe in two different ways:
- Disintegration of states: Some nations considered that they were under foreign rule within a large empire and fought for their independence. For example, the Ottoman Empire gradually broke up into smaller nations. The example of Greece (in 1829) was followed by several Balkan countries. However, despite pressure from nationalist movements, the Austro-Hungarian Empire survived until the early 20th century.
- Unification of states: Other nations, like Italy and Germany, were divided into many states but gradually discovered their shared identity. The new nation-states of Italy and Germany were established in the 19th century.
The Unification of Italy
In the early 19th century, the Italian peninsula was divided into several states, some of which were under foreign control. For example, the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia was under Austrian rule. However, the Italians shared a common language and history, and this created a sense of unity. The Kingdom of Piedmont in north-west Italy led the unification process under King Vittorio Emanuele II and his prime minister, Cavour. However, a revolutionary leader called Giuseppe Garibaldi also made a significant contribution:
- 1859: Cavour won French support for the Italian cause against the Austrians. In 1859, a French and Piedmontese army defeated the Austrians, and the region of Lombardy became part of Piedmont.
- 1860-1861: Garibaldi’s revolutionary forces (who were called the Red Shirts) took control of Naples and Sicily. In 1861, the first Italian parliament met in Turin and Vittorio Emanuele II became King of Italy.
- 1866: Italy supported Prussia in its war with Austria; in exchange, it received Venice.
- 1870: The Piedmontese occupied Rome, which became the capital of Italy.
The Unification of Germany
In the early 19th century, German territory was divided into 39 independent states. Although these were members of an association called the German Confederation, it did not have much influence.
The two dominant powers were Prussia and Austria, who were great rivals. In 1834, Prussia organized a customs union of German-speaking states, but Austria was not a member. In 1848, a parliament met in Frankfurt and offered the crown of Germany to the King of Prussia. However, the king refused because he was hostile to the liberals. After 1862, Wilhelm I, King of Prussia, and his prime minister, Bismarck, achieved the unification of Germany through military action.
German unification was achieved in just a few years under Prussian leadership:
- 1864: Following tensions in two states ruled by Denmark, Prussia invaded and annexed these territories.
- 1866: Prussia fought against its great rival Austria in the Austro-Prussian War and won a decisive victory in the Battle of Königgrätz (1866). Prussia then formed the North German Confederation under its leadership.
- 1870-1871: During the Franco-Prussian War, the Kingdom of Prussia and its German allies defeated France in the Battle of Sedan (1870). In 1871, the French Emperor Napoleon III surrendered, and the regions of Alsace and Lorraine became German. The south German states agreed to join the rest of Germany.
The Second German Empire
In 1871, the Second German Empire, or Second Reich, was proclaimed. Wilhelm I was crowned Kaiser (or Emperor).
The new country, governed by Chancellor Bismarck, experienced rapid economic growth and became a great military power. Germany was one of the leading European nations in the years before the First World War.