19th Century European Nationalism and Political Upheaval
The Restoration of Absolutism and its Limits
Congress of Vienna (1815)
Following Napoleon’s defeat, Prussia, Russia, Austria, and Great Britain convened in Vienna with the following objectives:
- Restore Absolutism (Legitimism): Re-establish the authority of monarchs as the sole legitimate rulers.
- Establish the Holy Alliance: Create an alliance to intervene in any region facing liberal challenges.
- Redraw Europe’s Map: Modify the European map altered by Napoleon, establishing new boundaries.
Challenges to Restoration
Despite these efforts, the complete restoration of the pre-1789 order faced significant challenges:
- Irreversible Impact of the Revolution: The French Revolution’s profound changes and the subsequent decades without the Ancien Régime made a return to the past impossible.
- Spread of Liberalism: Napoleon’s conquests inadvertently disseminated liberal ideas throughout Europe.
- Rise of National Identity: Napoleonic occupation fostered national consciousness in many regions.
- Empowered Bourgeoisie: The burgeoning bourgeoisie across Europe actively participated in political affairs.
- Limits to Absolutism: Even in France, the restoration of the monarchy came with limitations, as evidenced by the Charter Granted.
The Rise of Nationalism
Nationalism, the ideology advocating for shared cultural identity, sovereignty, and statehood, emerged as a powerful force in the 19th century. Its causes included:
- Liberalism: The emphasis on popular sovereignty empowered the concept of the nation as the body of citizens.
- Formation of Monarchies and Empires: The consolidation of large monarchies and empires fueled both liberal and national aspirations.
- European Map Reorganization: The Congress of Vienna’s arbitrary redrawing of borders without considering the inhabitants’ identities sparked nationalist sentiments.
- Economic and Industrial Expansion: Unified nations experienced greater economic development, leading the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie to embrace nationalism.
- Romantic Culture: The Romantic movement emphasized a sense of belonging and cultural identity.
Types of Nationalism
Nationalism manifested in various forms, including:
- Unifying Nationalism: Aiming to unite people with shared cultural characteristics into a single nation-state (e.g., Germany and Italy).
- Disintegrating Nationalism: Seeking independence and separation from existing states (e.g., Greece from the Ottoman Empire, Belgium from the Netherlands).
Unification of Germany
The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire by Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna led to the creation of the German Confederation, comprising 39 independent territories. The unification process involved several key steps:
Step 1: Zollverein (Customs Union)
Prussia spearheaded the formation of a customs union, excluding Austria, which fostered economic integration and strengthened Prussia’s influence.
Step 2: War against Denmark
Prussia, under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck and King Wilhelm I, gained control of the Danish duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.
Step 3: Austro-Prussian War
Prussia’s victory over Austria established its dominance in the German unification process.
Step 4: Franco-Prussian War
Prussia’s victory over France and the subsequent incorporation of Alsace-Lorraine completed the unification of Germany, leading to the establishment of the Second German Empire in 1871.
Unification of Italy
Italy in the early 19th century was a fragmented collection of states. The unification process unfolded in several stages:
Stage 1: War against Austria
With French support, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, led by Prime Minister Cavour and King Victor Emmanuel II, annexed Lombardy and Veneto from Austria. Central Italian duchies also joined voluntarily.
Stage 2: Annexation of the South
Giuseppe Garibaldi and his “Thousand Red Shirts” liberated the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, paving the way for its incorporation into a unified Italy.
Stage 3: Incorporation of Rome
In 1870, Garibaldi captured Rome, which became the capital of the newly unified Kingdom of Italy.
19th Century Spain: A Turbulent Journey
Spain during the Revolution and Napoleonic Era
Spain experienced significant turmoil during this period, marked by:
- Conflicts with France: Spain initially opposed the French Revolution but later allied with France against England, leading to the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar.
- Napoleonic Invasion: Napoleon’s invasion and the subsequent Peninsular War triggered a popular uprising and the Spanish War of Independence.
Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
The Spanish people’s resistance against French occupation, including guerrilla warfare, ultimately led to the expulsion of French forces.
Cádiz Constitution (1812)
The Cortes of Cádiz, convened during the war, drafted a liberal constitution that established national sovereignty, a constitutional monarchy, and individual rights.
Reign of Fernando VII (1814-1833)
Fernando VII’s return to power marked a period of absolutist rule, suppressing the Cádiz Constitution and persecuting liberals. However, liberal uprisings and the Carlist Wars challenged his authority.
Reign of Isabel II (1833-1868)
Isabel II’s reign was characterized by a moderate constitutional monarchy, with power alternating between liberal factions. Key events included:
- Desamortización: The confiscation and sale of church and communal lands to finance the government and promote economic development.
- Political Instability: Frequent uprisings and changes in government due to electoral manipulation and the queen’s influence.
Sexenio Democrático (1868-1874)
The Glorious Revolution of 1868 ousted Isabel II and led to a period of democratic experimentation, including:
- Amadeo I’s Reign: The brief reign of Amadeo of Savoy as king.
- First Spanish Republic: A short-lived republic plagued by internal conflicts and external wars.
Bourbon Restoration (1874-1931)
The restoration of the Bourbon monarchy under Alfonso XII ushered in a period of relative stability based on:
- Constitution of 1876: A new constitution established a system of shared sovereignty between the king and the Cortes.
- Turnismo: A system of peaceful alternation of power between the Conservative and Liberal parties, although marred by electoral manipulation and limited popular representation.
Crisis of the Restoration Regime
The Restoration regime faced several challenges in the late 19th and early 20th centuries:
- Loss of Colonies: The Spanish-American War resulted in the loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, leading to a national crisis.
- Rise of Peripheral Nationalisms: Regional movements in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia challenged centralism and demanded greater autonomy.
- Social and Political Unrest: Growing discontent with the limited political participation and socioeconomic inequalities fueled social and political unrest.
The 19th century in Europe was a period of profound transformation, marked by the struggle between absolutism and liberalism, the rise of nationalism, and significant political upheavals. The unification of Germany and Italy, along with the turbulent history of Spain, exemplify the complex dynamics of this era.