19th Century European History: Key Concepts and Events
Core Themes in 19th Century European History
- Conservatism vs. Liberalism vs. Socialism vs. Nationalism
- Industrialization leading to class conflict and political reform
- Unification through diplomacy and war (Italy and Germany)
- Modernization failures resulting in revolution (Russia)
- World War I and the subsequent unstable peace
Chronological Glossary of Historical Terms
Political Thinkers and Early Reform
Edmund Burke: A conservative thinker reacting to the French Revolution; he argued for tradition, gradual change, and stability.
Thomas Malthus: Argued that population grows faster than the food supply, making poverty inevitable; his theories were used to justify limited welfare.
David Ricardo: A free-market economist who proposed that comparative advantage supports free trade.
Peterloo Massacre (1819): British troops attacked a peaceful reform protest; it remains a symbol of government repression.
Rotten Boroughs: Corrupt British electoral districts with few voters; their existence led to widespread demands for parliamentary reform.
The Rise of Socialism and Revolution
Louis Philippe (1830–1848): Known as the “Citizen King” of France; he ruled for the bourgeoisie and was eventually overthrown in 1848.
July Ordinances (1830): Issued by Charles X to restrict the press and voting rights, which triggered the July Revolution.
People’s Charter (1838): Contained Chartist demands for political reform; it served as the foundation of mass working-class politics.
Louis Blanc: A French socialist who supported state-run jobs, known as national workshops.
Robert Owen: A utopian socialist who advocated for cooperative communities and labor reform.
Charles Fourier: A utopian socialist who proposed organized cooperative communities called phalansteries.
Karl Marx: The founder of communism; he emphasized class struggle and the inevitable overthrow of capitalism.
Friedrich Engels: A collaborator of Marx who exposed the exploitation of the working class.
Russian Modernization and Unification
Decembrist Revolt (1825): Russian officers demanded a constitution; the revolt was crushed but remained highly influential.
Crimean War (1853–1856): Russia was defeated, which exposed national weaknesses and highlighted the need for reform.
Alexander II: A Russian tsar who freed the serfs and reformed the judicial and military systems.
Zemstvos: Local councils in Russia that provided a limited form of self-government.
Giuseppe Mazzini: An Italian nationalist thinker who promoted republican nationalism.
Giuseppe Garibaldi: A military hero who successfully united southern Italy.
Camillo Cavour: A skilled diplomat who united Italy through strategic alliances and political maneuvering.
Otto von Bismarck: The Prussian leader who used Realpolitik to unify Germany through a series of wars.
Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871): This conflict led to German unification and the humiliation of France.
The Path to World War I
Nicholas II: The last Russian tsar; an autocratic leader who was eventually overthrown in 1917.
October Manifesto (1905): A document that promised civil rights and the creation of a Duma, briefly weakening autocracy.
Mensheviks: Moderate socialists who favored gradual reform over immediate revolution.
Schlieffen Plan: A German World War I strategy that failed, resulting in a difficult two-front war.
Trench Warfare: The stalemate warfare characteristic of WWI, resulting in massive casualties.
Lusitania (1915): The sinking of this ship by Germans pushed the United States closer toward entering the war.
Zimmerman Note (1917): A German proposal to Mexico that prompted the U.S. to enter World War I.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918): The agreement that allowed Russia to exit WWI, though it lost significant territory.
Treaty of Versailles (1919): This treaty punished Germany and caused long-term resentment and instability.
League of Nations: An international peace organization that suffered from weak enforcement capabilities.
Essay Outlines for European History
The Congress of Vienna
- Goal: Restore monarchies and maintain a balance of power.
- The Concert of Europe successfully suppressed early revolutions.
- Ultimately failed to stop the rising tides of nationalism and liberalism.
Major Political Ideologies
- Liberalism: Focused on individual rights, constitutions, and capitalism.
- Conservatism: Emphasized tradition and social stability.
- Socialism: Advocated for social equality and workers’ rights.
- Nationalism: Centered on national unity and cultural identity.
The Unification of Italy
- Mazzini: Provided the foundational ideas.
- Cavour: Managed the necessary diplomacy.
- Garibaldi: Led the essential military actions.
- The nation was finally united under a monarchy in 1861.
The Unification of Germany
- Led primarily by Prussia.
- Bismarck utilized a combination of war and diplomacy.
- The Franco-Prussian War was the key turning point.
- Resulted in the formation of an authoritarian empire.
Russian Modernization and Revolution
- Significant reforms occurred under Alexander II.
- Political change remained limited despite social shifts.
- Industrial unrest grew among the working class.
- World War I acted as the catalyst for the Revolution of 1917.