19th Century Europe: Vienna Congress to Liberal Revolutions
The Congress of Vienna and European Restoration
Following Napoleon’s banishment to St. Helena in 1814, absolute monarchs of Europe convened in Vienna, the capital of the Austrian Empire. Chaired by the Austrian Emperor and Chancellor Metternich, European absolute monarchs operated under three core principles:
- The Principle of Legitimacy: Rulers chosen by God were to be restored, re-establishing pre-French Revolution monarchies and suppressing revolutionary ideas that challenged the aristocracy. The Restoration aimed to re-establish absolutist monarchies after Napoleon’s fall.
- The Principles of Sovereignty and Territoriality: European monarchs held absolute power within their territories, resisting any liberal constitutions or governance that would curtail their authority.
- The Principle of Anti-Liberalism: Absolute powers sought to prevent the rise of liberal revolutions in any European territory, effectively ending the spirit of the French Revolution.
In Eastern Europe, the Holy Alliance was formed by the Russian Tsar, the Emperor of Austria, and the King of Prussia. This alliance aimed to maintain the established order through conferences and cooperation.
The Congress of Vienna redrew the map of Europe, a configuration that largely persisted until 1914. Key aspects included:
- Creation of buffer states like the United Kingdom of the Netherlands (Holland and Belgium), the Swiss Confederation (including Nice and Savoy), and the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia.
- Consolidation of grand empires in Eastern Europe: Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
- France returned to its pre-French Revolution territories. Germany and Italy remained fragmented into numerous smaller states, each seeking recognition. This new map aimed to balance power among European nations, preventing any single power from becoming overly dominant.
Rise of Nationalism in 19th Century Europe
Types of Nationalism
- Unifying nationalism sought to create a single new state from several distinct territories or peoples.
- Divisive nationalism, conversely, demanded independence for territories that considered themselves distinct nations.
Factors Fueling Nationalism
- Both Napoleon’s conquests and the Congress of Vienna’s redrawing of the European map prioritized the interests of monarchs and emperors, largely disregarding the desires of local inhabitants. This often fostered a feeling of occupation, leading to the rise of nationalism. Many individuals simultaneously embraced both liberal and nationalist ideals.
- The Romantic cultural movement fueled interest in myths and legends about the origins of peoples, imbuing nationalism with a strong affective and emotional component, emphasizing the value of belonging to a nation.
- Economic development and industrialization fostered greater unity and cohesion within territories. Nationalism, therefore, became both a revolutionary sentiment (seeking self-determination) and a conservative one (preserving national identity). Wealthier social classes often embraced nationalist ideals.
Romanticism: Art, Culture, and Emotion
Romanticism emphasized emotional aspects and individualism. Art and culture during this period were drawn to themes such as the exotic, fantasy, the sublime, the historical past, and the dismal. Architectural styles like Romantic Historicism and the Neo-Gothic emerged. Famous painters included Eugène Delacroix and Théodore Géricault.
Waves of Liberal Revolutions
The 1820 Revolutions
- Revolts erupted in Spain, Portugal, and Naples, led by liberals.
- In Russia, the Decembrist revolt occurred.
- Greece fought for and gained independence from the Ottoman Empire.
- The Holy Alliance, acting on the principles of the Congress of Vienna, intervened, with a French army invading Spain to suppress the liberal uprising.
The 1830 Revolutions
- In Paris, the July Revolution overthrew the absolutist Charles X, replacing him with Louis Philippe.
- Belgium gained independence from the Netherlands.
- Poland attempted to separate from Russia, but its revolution was ultimately suppressed.
The 1848 Revolutions (Springtime of Peoples)
- Widespread uprisings across Europe.
- In France, national workshops were created, the right to strike was recognized, and working hours were reduced.
- Revolutions also swept through Austria, the German states, and Prussia, driven by liberal, socialist, and nationalist demands.
- Piedmont-Sardinia also saw liberal movements, contributing to future Italian unification efforts.
- These revolutions highlighted the growing forces of liberalism, socialism, and nationalism across the continent.