19th Century Europe: Unification, Revolutions & Labor
German Unification
Background and Influences
In the 19th century, the territory of modern-day Germany consisted of 39 states within the Germanic Confederation, where the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were the most prominent powers. German national sentiment, particularly strong in the northern states, was fueled by several factors:
- Nostalgic romanticism for the German imperial past, championed by philosophers, historians, poets, and musicians.
- A common language and culture.
- A bourgeoisie eager to unify the land and establish a single market centered around Prussia.
A customs union, the Zollverein, had already been established in 1834 under Prussian leadership. Nationalist sentiment intensified due to widespread rejection of and opposition to Napoleon’s earlier rule. German nationalism grappled with the question of unification: a ‘Greater Germany’ (Großdeutschland), which would include Austria, or a ‘Lesser Germany’ (Kleindeutschland), led by Prussia and excluding Austria.
Prussian Leadership
The unification process in Germany was ultimately spearheaded by the Kingdom of Prussia, under its King Wilhelm I, and his influential Minister-President (later Chancellor), Otto von Bismarck, who had directed Prussian policy since 1862.
Stages of Unification
War against Denmark (1864)
This war was fought over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. These regions had a significant German-speaking population and cultural ties to Germany but were under Danish sovereignty. The local population largely favored annexation to the Germanic Confederation. Prussia and Austria jointly declared war on Denmark. Following their victory, Schleswig came under Prussian administration, and Holstein under Austrian administration.
Austro-Prussian War (1866)
Tensions emerged between Prussia and Austria over the administration of the newly acquired duchies. Prussia’s decisive victory over Austria at the Battle of Sadowa (Königgrätz) demonstrated its military and political superiority. In 1867, Prussia formed the North German Confederation, uniting 21 German states north of the Main River.
Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)
Growing rivalry with France, skillfully manipulated by Bismarck, led to war. The swift Prussian-led German victory, culminating in the Battle of Sedan, resulted in an armistice signed at Versailles in January 1871. On January 18, 1871, the Second German Reich (German Empire) was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, with King Wilhelm I of Prussia as German Emperor (Kaiser). The southern German states (Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg, and Hesse-Darmstadt) joined the new empire. Germany was unified and emerged as the dominant military and economic power on the European continent. For the next two decades, Bismarck largely arbitrated international relations in Europe.
The Labor Movement
The Labor Movement encompasses a range of organized actions and demands for social and political rights developed by the working class, largely in response to industrialization.
Causes of Labor Unrest
- Excessively long working hours.
- Extremely unhealthy and unsafe conditions in factories.
- Harsh factory discipline, often including corporal punishment.
- Absence of labor legislation to protect workers or regulate conditions.
- Very low wages.
- Lack of freedom of association and the right to organize.
Early Developments and Implications
- Luddites: This movement emerged among English textile workers between 1811 and 1816 (though earlier instances occurred from 1779). Luddites protested against the introduction of new machinery that threatened their livelihoods and traditional ways of working, sometimes resorting to destroying machines.
- First Trade Unions: Early forms of worker organization led to the establishment of trade unions, which aimed to improve wages and working conditions through collective bargaining.
- Chartism: A working-class movement for political reform in Britain that existed from 1838 to 1857. It called for universal male suffrage, secret ballots, and other democratic changes.
The Revolutions of 1848
The Revolutions of 1848 are often referred to as the “Springtime of Peoples” (or “Spring of Nations”) because they involved widespread popular uprisings against absolutist monarchies and foreign imperial rule across Europe.
Causes of the 1848 Revolutions
- Economic: A severe financial and agricultural crisis in 1847 led to widespread hardship.
- Political: Growing demands for liberal reforms, constitutional government, and national self-determination.
- Social: The rise of the worker movement, fueled by the deteriorating living and working conditions of industrial workers and artisans.
Events in France
The wave of revolutions began in France with a popular uprising in February 1848 that overthrew the monarchy of King Louis Philippe of Orleans. The Second Republic was proclaimed. The new provisional government implemented several significant social and political measures:
- Universal male suffrage.
- Abolition of slavery in French colonies.
- Reduction in working hours.
- Recognition of the right to strike.
- Establishment of National Workshops to provide work for the unemployed.
In December 1848, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew of Napoleon I) was elected President of the Republic. However, his government increasingly adopted an authoritarian character. In December 1851, he staged a coup d’état, and a year later, he declared himself Emperor Napoleon III, thus inaugurating the Second French Empire.
Spread Across Europe
The revolution in Paris quickly spread throughout Europe:
- Western and Central Europe: The revolutions saw the advancement of democratic and liberal ideals, including demands for popular sovereignty, social equality, and expanded suffrage. Uprisings occurred in the German states, the Austrian Empire, Italy, and elsewhere.
- Eastern Europe: The struggles were primarily anti-absolutist and nationalist, directed against the Austrian, Russian, and Ottoman imperial dominations. Peoples such as the Hungarians, Czechs, Poles, and Romanians sought greater autonomy or independence.
Causes of the French Revolution (Late 18th Century)
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was driven by a complex interplay of factors:
- The bourgeoisie (middle class), having achieved significant economic prosperity and influenced by Enlightenment ideas, desired political reforms that would dismantle the system of aristocratic privileges and absolute monarchy.
- The powerful French monarchy and aristocracy clung to the traditional feudal model, resisting meaningful change and reform.
- A severe economic crisis, marked by government debt, food shortages, and high taxes on the Third Estate, exacerbated social tensions and complicated the political situation, ultimately contributing to the revolutionary outbreak.