19th Century Europe: Revolutions, Industrialization, and Social Change
The Bourbons and the War of Spanish Succession
In the 18th century, Spain faced a succession crisis when King Carlos II died without heirs. This led to the end of the reign of the House of Austria and the appointment of Philip of Anjou as his successor, who became known as Felipe V. The Bourbons were thus established in Spain.
The War of Spanish Succession was an international conflict that pitted Spain and France against the Holy Roman Emperor, Great Britain, the United Provinces, Savoy, and Portugal. It was also a civil war, with Castile supporting Anjou and Aragón supporting Archduke Carlos.
Liberalism and Nationalism
Liberalism emerged as an ideology that defended individual liberty, the rights of citizens, equality under the law, and the suppression of privileges. It also advocated for the implementation of constitutional regimes based on national sovereignty and the separation of powers.
Nationalism, on the other hand, was an ideology that spread to territories under foreign power and those that aspired to form a unified state. Its objective was for each nation to have its own state and demanded the implementation of national borders.
The Afrancesados and the Patriots
During the reign of Joseph Bonaparte, a group known as the Afrancesados emerged. They accepted the new monarchy and supported its reforms, including the nobility, civil servants, and high clergy.
In contrast, the Patriots did not accept a foreign monarch imposed by military might and defended the sovereignty of Ferdinand VII.
Revolutions of 1820, 1830, and 1848
The Revolutions of 1820 took place in the Mediterranean and Russia, with army officials and secret societies playing significant roles. Liberalism rose up against absolutist regimes in Spain, Portugal, Naples, Piedmont, and Russia, and some monarchs accepted constitutions.
The Revolutions of 1830 affected practically all of Europe, beginning in France with the ousting of Charles X and the implementation of a constitutional monarchy. It spread to Belgium, which achieved independence from the Netherlands, and then to Spain, Portugal, and several Italian and German states. Once power was taken, liberal leaders limited rights and freedoms and established censitary or limited suffrage.
The Revolutions of 1848 were more extensive, with greater participation and more radical demands. They began in France and implemented a constitution establishing universal male suffrage. Revolutionaries demanded more rights, popular sovereignty, universal male suffrage, and social equality, leading the bourgeoisie to implement a conservative liberalism.
Consequences of the Revolutions
The consequences of the revolutions were positive, with many Western European countries adopting liberalism and writing constitutions with male censitary suffrage. The bourgeoisie gained the most from the liberal revolutions, while commoners did not achieve the deeper political and social transformations they had hoped for.
Roots of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain
The population of Europe grew significantly in the 18th century, leading to a demographic revolution. This was due to a decrease in mortality rates, improved nutrition, fewer epidemics, and better hygiene and medicine. The birth rate remained high, resulting in a large natural population growth.
Other factors that contributed to the Industrial Revolution included the modernization of transportation and trade networks, which intensified domestic trade and reached a global level. The growth of financial means allowed profits to be used to finance mining, steel, and textile industries. The availability of energy sources and raw materials, such as the steam engine, also played a role.
Economic Consequences of the Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution benefited domestic and foreign trade, leading to increased demand and production, as well as improved means of transportation.
Industrial Capitalism and Financial Capitalism
The first industries were small and financed by individuals. They pushed for limited partnerships to obtain greater investments, with partners providing capital and others administering it.
Public limited companies emerged, with capital divided into small amounts. This led to the creation of stock markets and more banks.
Financial capitalism emerged as establishments grew in the early 19th century. Profits were made by buying and selling shares, financial products, and securities.
Increase in Economic Inequality
Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, countries began to be measured by industrial power rather than geographical size or military strength. Industrialized countries controlled the world, while non-industrialized countries became dependent.
The Labour Movement
The deplorable conditions of the proletariat and their political marginalization, along with the lack of labor legislation, led to the beginning of the labor movement. Protests against mechanization and the destruction of machines (Luddities) were common. Friendly societies were also created, where members paid a fee for job loss or accidents.
Trade unions emerged with the objective of improving labor conditions, reducing the length of the workday, increasing wages, and obtaining political rights. Chartism, a document sent to the British Parliament by the London Workingmen’s Association, demanded secret ballots, universal male suffrage, and yearly elections for Parliament.
Socialism, as proposed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, aimed to end private property, which they considered the cause of the separation between the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (who lacked property and had to sell their labor for miserable wages). They advocated for a revolution led by the socialist party, which would bring the proletariat to power and implement common ownership, creating a society without classes or a state.
Anarchism, as proposed by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin, sought to achieve maximum individual freedom by eliminating anything that limited it, including the state, private property, and religious beliefs. They believed in spontaneous revolution by peasants and proletarians, which would lead to the abolition of the state and its replacement by egalitarian communities with equal production and consumption.
Spain in the 19th Century
Spain transitioned from absolutism to a liberal system, experiencing civil wars, military coups d’état, and the loss of its colonial empire. The population grew, and the economy modernized, but Spain remained an agrarian country.
A new class-based society emerged, centered on wealth. Landowners continued to have significant influence, while the bourgeoisie and proletariat had very little. The peasantry remained the majority.
Reign of Carlos IV
In 1788, Carlos IV gave power to Manuel Godoy. The political crisis of the Old Regime began under the influence of France. Spain’s borders were closed, and Enlightenment reforms were halted. France invaded the Basque Country and Navarre, leading Godoy to sign the Peace of Basel.
Godoy allied with Napoleon in the Treaty of Fontainebleau to invade and divide Portugal. French troops entered Spain and occupied strategic points of the peninsula. The Mutiny of Aranjuez, a popular revolt against Godoy’s policies, led to Carlos IV demoting Godoy and giving the throne to Ferdinand VII.
Napoleon drew Carlos and Ferdinand to Bayonne and got both to abdicate to him, making Joseph Bonaparte the new king of Spain.
War of Independence
French invasion led to the uprising of the people of Madrid 2may1808->in the cities fight against occupation: resistance Countryside: guerrilla warfare->1st phase Fra advance stopped by the resistance of the cities, victory battle of Bailén: Nap went to Spa with 250k soldiers and recovered almosta all the territory 2nd from 1812 on->taking advance from Nap problems in Russia help of GB, French were defeated at Arapiles->Nap recognised FerVII king Spa Cortes of Cádiz liberal rev happened in parall with the war->patriots created provincial defence juntas to conduct the war->Power supreme central junta undertook political and social reforms, it summoned the Cortes Cad elected by male popular vote->among cortes delegantes were absolutist, defended royal sover and keep OR->liberals favour national sover end OR, won mejority able to get cortes and carry out reforms and approve the constitution1812 first in Spa-> recognised ind rights national sover separation powers, absolutism->liberal political system
FrenchR| Causes: Ideological and political(Enlightenment ideas/AmericanR)
Social: Nobility,Clergy lost power/Bourgeoisie claim political influence
Peastantry (pay taxes/hard life conditions)
Economic: food/financial crisis. New taxes for privileges classes
Process: NationalConstituentAssembly: Wanted to write a constitution in France
Fearing that the army would dissolve the new assembly people stormed the
fortress and the Bastile to seize its weapons and defend its representatives
Measures: Abolition to feudalism: Eliminate lords’ privileges. Wrote the declaration
of the rights of man and the citizen. Wrote the Constitution1791.
Legislative Assembly: NatnlContuentAsembly->NationalAsembly(Constitution wrote)
ConstitutionalMonarchy/New laws/Problems:(opposition)King tried to flee the country
and was arrested/(opposition)exiled nobles conspired from abroad.War against
AustriaPrussia(support counterrevolutionaries)/InternalDivsions: Girondis(moderated
revolutionaries)JAcobins(radicals)->country chaos
LegislativeAssembly was dissolve->elect new goverment
National Convenion: Legisltv asmbly->votation->Ntnal Convenion. ModeratePeriod
Initially dominated by Girondins. Abolished monarchy->proclaimed republic1792
King LouisXVI->guillotine.
TheReignOfTerror: radical Jacobins came into goverment->defeated invading
forces/new laws, new powers to common people/UniversalMaleSuffrage
Oposers:guillotine/Robespierre and his followers->executed because their
much power. Convenion cam to be dominated by more moderated deputies
New Constitution1795
Directory and the Consulate: Ntnal Convenion->Constitution->The Directory
The new Constitution: New goverment of 5 menbers(the directory)
Suffrage: people who paid rent/New military campaings were started.
Napoleon took advantage of his popularity to stage a coup d’etat that
replaced the Directory with a Consulate of 3 members. Finally Napoleon
achieved total power by becoming first consul
AmericanR| causes: discontent of the colonist: lacked representation in GB parliament
dependence on GB for trade, couldn’t occupy extensive territories in the west of the
colonies->were reserved for GB. Spread of Enlight ideas->GB government be despotic
The spark, that set off the conflict make GB levy taxes->Stamp act(commercial and legal
documents) Tea act(monopoly sale of tea)->not accepted by colonist->Boston Tea Party
Conflict: George Washington/Support of Fra and Spa/Victory in YorkTown/Treaty of Versailles
Creation of USA: chara: equal rights all people/Rights to liberty, life, happinessNational
Sovereignity to guarantee these rights.
Constitution: liberal system Republic NationalSovereignity SeparationOfPowers
Napoleonic Period| Consulate: Pacification of the country ->Elimination
of most radical factions/Return exiled nobility/Concordat1801: Agreement
signed with Pope: Recognized catholic faith in France->the church wouldn’t
reclaim the lands confiscated in the Revolution
Internal Reform: Creation of a system of public assitance/Public education
Several monuments built in Paris/Civil Code->Equiality in the eyes of the law
Right of property and economic freedom/Separation church and state
Popularity of these measures->Nap elected consul for life and then emperor
Nap Empire: control a big part of WestEurope after several victories
Only country that stood against was GB->defeated french at Trafalgar
Resisted a continental blockade. In conquered countries->countries were given
to Nap family/Introduced revolutionary ideas/New constitutions/Civil code
Abolished seigniorial rights
Nap Empire: Failure in Russia and the defeat in the IberianPenin->GB/Aus/Rus
entered in Paris. Monarchy-> reestablished(LouisXVIII)/Nap exiled to Elba island
He escaped and was restored to power for 100days->was defeated in
Waterloo1815->exiled to SaintHelene island: he died1821