19th Century Europe: Restoration, Revolutions, and Unification
The Restoration and the Ancient Régime
The Restoration & the Ancient Régime was a return to the political system of the Ancient Régime that was imposed by the victorious European powers (Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain) after Napoleon’s defeat in 1815.
- Absolute monarchies were reinstated.
- Europe’s borders were changed.
- The European powers agreed to support any monarch who was threatened by revolution or any attempt to limit his or her power.
Liberalism, Nationalism, and Democracy
European revolutions of the 19th century were based on ideologies such as liberalism and nationalism, as well as the idea of democracy.
Liberalism
Liberalism is an ideology that advocates individual liberties, such as the right to life, freedom of expression and association, the right to choose political representatives, and the right to own private property.
Key Principles of Liberalism
- Constitutions that guaranteed citizens’ rights and liberties.
- Constitutional monarchy as the form of government.
- The separation of powers.
- Popular sovereignty, limited male suffrage based on property ownership.
- Individual liberties.
Nationalism
Nationalism is an ideology that advocates the right of people who define themselves as a nation to form independent states.
Key Principles of Nationalism
- A population with common links, such as a common language, culture, and religion.
- Popular sovereignty, so that all citizens would feel part of the nation.
- Each nation chooses its own government.
Types of Nationalism
- Unification nationalism
- Separatist nationalism
Democracy
In the 19th century, democratic movements advocated ordinary people’s right to participate in politics. Their supporters wanted to end the social and economic inequalities produced by bourgeois liberalism.
Key Principles of Democracy
- Universal manhood suffrage.
- A preference for republics as a form of government.
The Political Revolutions of the 19th Century
The political revolutions of the 19th century were based on liberalism, nationalism, and democracy.
The Revolutions of the 1820s
- Spain and Portugal: Liberal revolutions, constitutional monarchies.
- Greece: Wanted independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1821, a liberal-nationalist revolution began, supported by European countries.
The Revolutions of 1830
- Belgium: Wanted independence from Holland. Holland imposed its politics on Belgium until it became a constitutional monarchy under Leopold I.
- During the restoration in France, the Bourbons had returned to the throne. Finally, Charles X strengthened the absolute monarchy and suppressed liberties.
The Revolutions of 1848
1848 marked a more radical phase of the 19th-century revolutions, as the petite bourgeoisie and workers advocated democratic principles that would give them access to political power. These revolutions failed everywhere except in France.
Italian and German Unification
Germany and Italy had been divided into numerous small states for many years, and these divisions were confirmed by the Congress of Vienna. Nationalist movements succeeded in unifying them.
Italian Unification
The following factors caused a growth in nationalism:
- The Congress of Vienna left the Italian Peninsula divided into 7 states.
- Nationalist and liberal successes in other countries.
- The failure of the Revolutions of 1848 also encouraged nationalism. Charles Albert, the King of Piedmont-Sardinia, wanted to unite Italy and declared war on Austria but was defeated.
- Important figures supported Italian unification, both in Italy and overseas.
The unification process was initiated by Piedmont-Sardinia. Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour tried to extend their kingdom’s constitutional system to other parts of Italy. This process began in 1859.