19th Century Europe: Restoration, Liberalism & Nationalism

Posted on May 12, 2025 in History

Key 19th Century European Concepts

Restoration

A return to the political system of the Ancien Régime imposed by the victorious European countries after Napoleon’s defeat in 1815. It was led by the Congress of Vienna, and its main principles were absolutism, maintaining a balance of power in Europe, the right to intervene in other countries, and restoring the legitimacy of kings to their thrones.

Holy Alliance

One of the two European alliances formed to enforce the agreements made by the Congress of Vienna and assist any absolutist monarch threatened by revolution. It was formed by Russia, Prussia, and Austria.

Liberalism

An ideology that emerged in the 19th century, based on previous ideas from the Enlightenment and the bourgeois revolutions. It is a political doctrine emphasizing individual freedoms, equality before the law, separation of powers, and popular sovereignty regulated by constitutions. There are two main types: moderate and radical (or progressive).

Nationalism

An ideology advocating the right of nations to form independent states based on the idea of the nation-state. There are two main types: civic (or liberal) and ethnic (or conservative) nationalism.

Zollverein

A customs union established in the German Confederation in 1834, intended to encourage political union through economic integration. It involved the elimination of customs duties among the members of the Confederation, with the exception of Austria.

19th Century Spain: Key Terms and Events

Persian Manifesto (1814)

A political text written in 1814 by absolutist deputies of the Cortes of Cádiz upon Fernando VII’s return to Spain after the Spanish War of Independence. Its purpose was to convince the king to abolish the Constitution of 1812 and restore absolutism in Spain.

Moderate Liberal Party

A liberal political party during Isabel II’s reign. Its main characteristics included: shared sovereignty between the Parliament and the king; very limited male suffrage; democratic access to power; and a bicameral Cortes (Congress and Senate). It was supported by the Church, the nobility, and the wealthy bourgeoisie.

Progressive Liberal Party

A liberal political party during Isabel II’s reign. Its main characteristics included: popular sovereignty; a bicameral Cortes (both elected); less limited male suffrage; and often violent access to power. It was supported by the middle and petite bourgeoisie.

Caciquismo

The manipulation of election results carried out by political parties through caciques, individuals who held economic or political power in a rural area. They used various methods, such as violence against opponents’ supporters, tampering with ballot boxes, voter impersonation, threats of unemployment, or bribery.

Pragmatic Sanction

A law proclaimed by Fernando VII that replaced the Salic Law, which had excluded females from the line of succession. This law established his daughter Isabel II’s right to become queen and ultimately provoked the First Carlist War.

Expropriation

State confiscation of land belonging to the Church, the nobility, and municipalities. Owners received monetary compensation in return. The state then sold the land at public auction (subasta pública) to address Spain’s economic problems. These expropriations were carried out primarily by the progressive ministers Mendizábal (1836) and Madoz (1855).

Glorious Revolution (1868)

A military revolt that began in Cádiz in 1868, led by Admiral Topete and Generals Prim and Serrano. It gained significant support in major Spanish cities and was successful. Consequently, Isabel II was forced into exile, marking the beginning of the Democratic Sexennium, the first attempt to establish a democratic political system in Spain.

Types of Nationalism in the 19th Century

Liberal Nationalism

Emerged from events like the Glorious Revolution (1688), the French Enlightenment, and American Independence. It posits that individuals voluntarily decide to form part of the nation, which forms the basis of the nation itself. Loyalty was directed towards a constitution, not a monarch. This type inspired the independence of Greece and Belgium and the unification of Italy.

Conservative Nationalism

Developed from German Romanticism. It defines groups of people by a common language and culture. The nation is seen as existing on a level beyond an individual’s decision to belong to it.

Comparing Liberal Factions

The Congress of Vienna: Territorial Changes

• Austria expanded into northern Italy and Dalmatia.
• Prussia expanded into Poland and part of Saxony.
• Russia gained land from Finland, Poland, and part of the Ottoman Empire.
• The UK took control of the seas through strategic territorial gains.
• A coalition of German States formed the Zollverein, managing tariffs and economic policy among themselves.
• Sweden annexed Norway.
• Belgium and Holland joined to form the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
• Italy remained divided until 1870.
• France returned to its borders before the French Revolution.

Italian Unification (Risorgimento)

Influenced by the Risorgimento, a cultural movement promoting national identity.

1. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, with French assistance, annexed Lombardy, Parma, Modena, and Tuscany.
2. Lombardy and Venice were liberated from Austrian control. Giuseppe Garibaldi conquered Naples and Sicily in 1860, and Venice was annexed in 1866.
3. Rome (which became the capital of the new Kingdom of Italy) and the Papal States, previously ruled directly by the Pope, were occupied.
4. A constitutional monarchy was established, ruled by Victor Emmanuel II, the first king of unified Italy.

Core Principles of Liberalism

• Based on a belief in individual freedoms.
• Promoted the separation of powers: executive (government), legislative (parliament), and judicial (courts).
• Defended popular sovereignty, expressed through suffrage.
• Based on the principle of equality before the law.
• Defended systems of government regulated by constitutions.

Spain: Restoration and Liberalism (1814-1833)

The Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820)

After the fall of Napoleon, the Bourbon monarchy of Fernando VII was reinstated. Conservative deputies presented him with the Manifesto of the Persians, a document requesting a return to absolutism. Fernando VII revoked the Constitution of 1812, and absolutism was reintroduced, along with the institutions of the Ancien Régime. Liberals and afrancesados (those who supported French rule) faced repression, leading to the exile of more than 12,000 families. The inefficiency, corruption, and repression of this period, combined with a social and economic crisis, caused widespread discontent. The liberal opposition capitalized on this discontent, and military men with liberal ideas led uprisings, revolts, and pronunciamientos (military coups). Two examples are the uprisings led by Espoz y Mina in 1814 and Díaz Porlier in 1815.

The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

In 1820, a pronunciamiento led by Rafael del Riego and Antonio Quiroga forced Fernando VII to re-establish the 1812 Cádiz Constitution. Liberals attempted to introduce reformist policies, particularly targeting the Church. From the spring of 1821, reactionary movements formed against the liberals, supported by Fernando VII and the Church, with significant movements in Navarra and Cataluña. Ultimately, a foreign military intervention ended the Liberal Triennium. Based on the agreement made at the Congress of Vienna to suppress revolutionary uprisings, the French army known as the “Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis” marched into Spain in April 1823. They defeated the liberals, allowing Fernando VII to undo all their reforms during the subsequent Ominous Decade.

The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

During this period, Fernando VII re-established absolutism and many policies dating from the Ancien Régime. As in the Absolutist Sexennium, Fernando VII persecuted liberals, thousands of whom went into exile. However, liberal military uprisings continued to threaten order, such as the attempted plot led by Torrijos. Fernando VII’s fear of conspiracies and potential pronunciamientos led him to reorganize the armed forces with loyal soldiers. Despite this, liberal ideas had permanently transformed Spain. The country had become familiar with constitutional practices, press societies had developed, and cultural life had been revitalized, making any return to pure absolutism only temporary. In the final years of his reign, Fernando VII increasingly depended on liberal sectors of society while expelling staunch defenders of absolutism from the government. This shift was insufficient to win the support of exiled liberals but angered the ultra-royalists (Carlists).