19th Century Europe: Napoleonic Era, Congress of Vienna, and Nationalism
The Napoleonic Empire: Napoleon declared himself emperor in 1804. His military victories against Austria and Prussia gave him control of Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, and much of Germany. He invaded Spain, placing his brother Joseph I on the throne, and in 1812 attempted to conquer Russia, but was forced to retreat. His greatest enemy was Great Britain. Napoleon’s Continental Blockade, which forbade any ship from arriving at a European port, ultimately failed. Domestically, Napoleon was a skilled organizer. He created the French Civil Code, which ensured equality before the law, forbade torture, and separated church and state in matters like marriage and divorce. He also divided France into préfectures, similar to provinces.
The Congress of Vienna and the Restoration: In 1814, after Napoleon’s exile to St. Helena, the absolute monarchs of Europe met in Vienna, capital of the Austrian Empire, under the arbitration of Austrian Chancellor Metternich. They acted on three principles: Restoration (returning absolute monarchs to their thrones after Napoleon’s fall); Sovereignty and Territoriality (European kings had full power within their territories, rejecting liberal constitutions that limited their power); and Anti-liberalism (European monarchs sought to suppress liberal revolutions and the rising power of the bourgeoisie, thus ending the aftermath of the French Revolution). The monarchs of Russia, Austria, and Prussia created the Holy Alliance to organize conferences and armies to quell any revolutionary activity in Europe. A new map of Europe emerged, lasting until 1914, with the following characteristics: 1. Creation of buffer states (Kingdom of the Netherlands, Helvetic Confederation, Kingdom of Piedmont); 2. Large empires in Eastern Europe; and 3. France returned to its pre-revolutionary borders, while Germany and Italy remained fragmented, seeking unification.
19th Century Revolutions:
- 1820: Revolutions in Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Piedmont, inspired by the Spanish Constitution of Cadiz. Greece declared independence from the Ottoman Empire.
- 1830: Intellectuals, students, and workers launched the “July Revolution” in France. After abolishing the monarchy, they installed the parliamentary king Louis Philippe, abolished press censorship, expanded voting rights, and proclaimed Belgian independence with a liberal constitution. An uprising in Poland was crushed by the Russian army.
- 1848: The French monarchy of Louis Philippe was overthrown, and a republic was proclaimed. Social democrats joined the revolution, demanding the right to strike and a ten-hour workday.
Causes of Nationalism: Both Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna organized Europe based on the interests of monarchs, ignoring the desires of its inhabitants. This fueled nationalist sentiment in some areas. Many people were both liberal and nationalist. Economic industrialization meant that more unified countries experienced greater economic development, shifting nationalism from a revolutionary sentiment to a conservative one, embraced by wealthy classes. Culturally, growing interest in legends and myths about the origins of peoples gave nationalism a strong emotional component, emphasizing belonging to a nation.
Romantic Art and Culture: Romanticism emphasized emotional aspects. Romantic art and culture focused on exoticism, fantasy, the macabre, and the historical past. Architecture saw a revival of historical styles, particularly neo-Gothic. Notable painters include the French artists Delacroix and Géricault.