19th and 20th Century American History: Key People, Events, and Concepts
Key Figures and Events of 19th and 20th Century America
Science and Technology
Charles Darwin and Evolution
Charles Darwin, a renowned scientist, developed the theory of evolution. He collaborated with Alfred Russel Wallace and published his groundbreaking book in 1859, after spending 20 years in South America.
The Duryea Brothers and the Automobile
Charles and Frank Duryea, from Massachusetts, pioneered the first successful gasoline-powered car in 1893. Their innovation paved the way for the Ford Motor Company and the mass production of automobiles.
Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management
Frederick Taylor, an American engineer, revolutionized industrial efficiency with his principles of scientific management. His 1911 publication, “The Principles of Scientific Management,” established him as the “father of scientific management.”
Education and Social Reform
The Morrill Land-Grant Act of 1862
The Morrill Land-Grant Act, proposed by Vermont Representative Justin Smith Morrill and signed by President Abraham Lincoln, aimed to boost education. Each state received 30,000 acres of land, the proceeds of which were used to establish colleges, expanding educational opportunities across the nation.
Progressive Movement
The Progressive Movement, emerging in the 1890s, advocated for political and social reform. Progressives, including figures like Andrew Carnegie, believed in addressing social issues rather than solely focusing on capitalism. They sought to improve society through various reforms.
Muckrakers
Muckraking journalists played a crucial role in exposing business abuses and political corruption. The term “muckraker” was coined in 1906 by President Theodore Roosevelt, who supported their efforts. Prominent muckrakers included Ida Tarbell, known for her work on the Standard Oil monopoly, and Lincoln Steffens, who shed light on political corruption.
Economic Systems and Labor
Tenant Farming and Sharecropping
Tenant farming and sharecropping systems emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Landowners rented land to farmers, often former slaves or immigrants, who paid with a share of their crops or cash. These systems often resulted in low wages and perpetuated unfair labor practices.
Laissez-Faire Economics
Laissez-faire, a hands-off economic policy, advocates for minimal government intervention in the market. This approach, based on principles of individual self-interest and competition, gained prominence in the mid-18th century.
Corporations
Corporations, separate legal entities, gained significance in the American economy. These large businesses, with legal rights and liabilities distinct from their shareholders, played a central role in industrial growth.
Urbanization and Immigration
Dumbbell Tenements
Dumbbell tenements, named for their shape, emerged in response to an 1879 law requiring windows in all habitable rooms. Designed by James Ware, these buildings represented a compromise between legal health standards and commercial viability.
Nativism
Nativism, favoring established inhabitants over immigrants, gained traction in the 19th century. Many Americans felt threatened by the influx of immigrants, particularly Catholics and Jews, leading to anti-immigrant sentiment and discrimination.
Imperialism and Foreign Policy
Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny, a 19th-century belief in America’s inevitable expansion from the Pacific to the Atlantic, fueled territorial acquisitions. The term, first used in 1845 during discussions about annexing Texas, had significant consequences in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Open Door Policy
The Open Door Policy, implemented in 1899-1900 by Secretary of State John Hay, aimed to ensure equal trade opportunities with China and prevent its colonization. This policy allowed China to collect taxes while promoting American economic interests.
Spanish-American War
The Spanish-American War (1898) was sparked by events such as the de Lôme Letter, criticizing President McKinley, and the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor. The war resulted in American victory and acquisition of territories like Cuba and the Philippines.
Segregation and Civil Rights
Plessy v. Ferguson and “Separate but Equal”
The 1896 Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson established the “separate but equal” doctrine, upholding racial segregation laws. This ruling, based on a misinterpretation of the 14th Amendment, had profound consequences for African Americans and laid the groundwork for the Civil Rights Movement.
W.E.B. Du Bois and the NAACP
W.E.B. Du Bois, a prominent sociologist and Pan-Africanist, was the first African American to earn a doctorate from Harvard University. He co-founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and dedicated his life to fighting for racial equality.
Additional Figures and Concepts
Alfred Thayer Mahan
Alfred Thayer Mahan, a graduate of West Point and a distinguished naval officer, advocated for American maritime power. He served in the Navy for 40 years and played a crucial role in establishing the Naval War College in Rhode Island.
José Martí
José Martí, a Cuban poet, essayist, and patriot, led the Cuban struggle for independence from Spain. His eloquent writing and revolutionary leadership inspired the Cuban people in their fight for liberation.
Valeriano Weyler
Valeriano Weyler, a Spanish general known for his brutal tactics, attempted to suppress the Cuban Revolution in the late 19th century. His harsh methods earned him the nickname “The Butcher.”
Peonage
Peonage, a form of debt slavery, persisted despite being outlawed in 1867. This system, often used to exploit Black Americans in the South, was officially eradicated in 1940.
Krag-Jørgensen Rifle
The Krag-Jørgensen rifle, a bolt-action firearm produced in Massachusetts, was used by the US military from 1892 to 1899.
Luna Park
Luna Park, an amusement park in Coney Island, Brooklyn, opened in 1903. Its dazzling lights and innovative architecture showcased the wonders of electricity during a time of technological advancement.
Vaudeville
Vaudeville, a popular form of entertainment in the 19th and 20th centuries, featured diverse acts and attracted audiences of all backgrounds. Stars like Buster Keaton and Mae West graced the Vaudeville stage, which originated in Boston and spread throughout the country.
Populism
Populism, a political doctrine emphasizing the rights and power of ordinary people against the elite, gained traction in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This movement, with roots in agrarian discontent, influenced political landscapes in countries like Spain and India.
Eugenics
Eugenics, the practice of improving human genetic qualities, emerged in the late 19th century. Based on the ideas of Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin, eugenics advocated for selective breeding to promote desirable traits and eliminate undesirable ones.
Xenophobia
Xenophobia, the fear or hatred of foreigners, is characterized by prejudice and stereotypes against those from different cultures. This phenomenon often leads to discrimination and social exclusion.
American Psychological Association (APA)
The American Psychological Association, founded in 1892, is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists. Prominent figures like Robert Yerkes were among its members.
Reconcentrado
Reconcentrado, a brutal policy implemented by Spanish General Weyler in Cuba during the 1896 rebellion, involved forced relocation of civilians into concentration camps. This inhumane practice resulted in widespread suffering and death.
Fourteen Points Plan
President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points Plan, outlined in a 1918 speech to Congress, aimed to establish lasting peace and stability after World War I. This plan influenced the Treaty of Versailles and shaped the international order.
Andrew Carnegie
Andrew Carnegie, a Scottish-American industrialist and philanthropist, amassed a fortune through his steel empire. He later dedicated his wealth to philanthropy, establishing institutions like Carnegie Mellon University and supporting educational initiatives.
Bobbin Boys
Bobbin boys, young boys employed in textile mills during the 18th and 19th centuries, performed tasks such as assisting weavers and repairing machinery. They often worked long hours for meager wages, highlighting the harsh realities of child labor during the Industrial Revolution.
Sinclair Oil Corporation
Harry Sinclair founded the Sinclair Oil Corporation in New York in 1916. The company played a significant role in the oil industry, particularly during the Great Depression, and is known for its iconic dinosaur logo.