18th-Century Transformations: Europe, America, and Spain
International Policy
International policy during the 18th century was ruled by two principles: the continental balance in Europe and hegemony in the colonies.
1. Continental Balance: This was established after the peace treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastatt (1714), which followed the Spanish and French defeat during the War of the Spanish Succession. Great Britain proposed it to achieve a balance between the European armies on the continent. However, this system wasn’t successful due to the Spanish and French desire to recover their lost territories.
2. Hegemony in the Colonies: Great Britain defeated Spain, France, and the Netherlands overseas, becoming the first commercial power.
Ideological Transformation
The Enlightenment was an intellectual and ideological movement born in France in the 18th century. Its members supported the following ideas against the Ancien Régime:
1. Confidence in reason or human intelligence to achieve human progress against tradition and superstition.
2. Confidence in science and technology to improve the living conditions of human beings.
3. The right of the people to happiness.
Political Transformation
During the second half of the 18th century, some kings tried to join their absolute power to the Enlightenment’s progressive ideas. Thus, “Enlightened Absolutism” was born: the king kept all the power but made some reforms to manage progress and happiness for his subjects. This type of government is summarized in the sentence: “Everything for the people, but without the people.”
Some of the most important despotic kings were Louis XVI of France, Charles III of Spain, Joseph I of Portugal, Joseph II of Austria, Frederick II of Prussia, and Catherine II of Russia. These monarchs took steps in their states like law unification, modernization of the economy, and promotion of the arts.
However, some Enlightenment thinkers criticized this system:
1. Voltaire: He was in favor of a monarchy with limited power and supported citizenship liberties.
2. Montesquieu: He supported the separation of powers to avoid tyranny.
3. Rousseau: He stated sovereignty belonged to the nation, and citizens should elect representatives who had to rule according to the popular will.
Economic Transformations
Agriculture: Improved thanks to new plants (potato, corn) and the introduction of crop rotation in Northern Europe.
Handicrafts: Increased production, and absolute monarchies promoted state handicrafts.
Trade: Improved due to the improvement of roads and canals, and because of the foundation of trade companies to trade with the colonies.
From the middle of the 18th century, mercantilism was replaced by new economic theories:
Physiocracy: Quesnay said the main source of wealth was land (agriculture and mining), and he supported economic freedom (laissez-faire).
Economic Liberalism: Supported by A. Smith in his book, “The Wealth of Nations.” Smith said the state shouldn’t intervene in the economy because this activity is regulated on its own through the law of supply and demand.
Social Transformations
The bourgeoisie became very rich, although it had no social or political influence. The Enlightenment criticized this society and the privileges of the nobility and the clergy, and supported the demands of the bourgeoisie (political participation and social recognition).
The Enlightenment in Spain
In Spain, Enlightenment ideas were spread by a group of important thinkers and politicians that included Jovellanos and the Count of Floridablanca. These people wanted to use Enlightenment ideas to improve economic, social, and cultural conditions in Spain. This was necessary because Spain had declined during the reigns of the Lesser Habsburgs—the last three kings of the Habsburg dynasty. To communicate their ideas, Spanish Enlightenment thinkers published scientific and literary papers. They also established schools, academies, and special associations known as Sociedades Económicas de Amigos del País. New public spaces were also created, such as the Royal Botanical Gardens in Madrid. However, Enlightenment ideas also encountered resistance from the nobility, the Church, and from many people who defended their traditional way of life. This made it difficult to implement reforms.
Enlightenment Politics in Europe, America, and Spain
Enlightened Despotism: Rise and Fall
Enlightened despotism was a new form of government that developed in some European countries in the 18th century. Its objective was to modernize the country and improve subjects’ quality of life by combining absolute monarchy with Enlightenment ideas. Enlightened despots had the following characteristics:
- They created centralized governments to consolidate their power and implement their policies.
- To promote reform, they appointed enlightened thinkers to important positions, for example, as ministers.
- To avoid challenges to their power, they tried to make changes peacefully, through education and new laws.
The Beginning of the Modern Age
The outbreak of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1799 marked the start of the Modern Age. Before the French Revolution, enlightened despots failed to make the political, economic, and social changes that Enlightenment thinkers had proposed. From 1789 onwards, these changes were violently imposed by revolutionaries, against the wishes of monarchs.
- A political revolution ended the Ancien Régime in France. Subsequently, the revolutionaries implemented a number of reforms influenced by Enlightenment ideas and established a new regime.
- In Spain, the events of the French Revolution inspired the first steps towards a new political, economic, and social order.
- The revolutionaries transformed the everyday life of the population, introducing new habits and customs.
- Art reflected the political, economic, and social changes of the time.
The French Revolution marked the arrival of a new era, which was symbolized by the famous slogan: “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.” Revolutionaries often added the words “or death” to the slogan to show that they were prepared to fight and die for their principles. The slogan remained influential long after the revolution. It appeared on French coins in the 20th century and has also appeared on those representing the country since the introduction of the Euro.
The Causes of the French Revolution
The French Revolution was a period of violent political and social change, which saw the abolition of the absolute monarchy and the end of the estates system of the Ancien Régime.
The Influence of the Enlightenment
French intellectuals and the bourgeoisie supported Enlightenment ideas and tried to put them into practice. For example, they demanded that all French subjects be free and equal under the law.
The Political Crisis
In France, the Estates-General brought together representatives of the three estates of the realm to advise the king on important issues, such as tax increases. Both the clergy (the first estate) and the nobility (the second estate) had 300 representatives in the Estates-General, and each group had one vote. In contrast, the middle class and the peasantry (the third estate) had 600 representatives and only one vote.
The Economic Crisis
The French state was bankrupt as a result of its participation in military conflicts, such as the American War of Independence. The royal family also spent large amounts of money on palaces, luxury goods, and extravagant parties. To improve the country’s finances, Louis XVI’s ministers suggested that he increase taxes, even for the privileged upper classes.
The Social Crisis
By the late 18th century, all three estates of the realm were discontented with the crown, but for different reasons. The nobility and the clergy wanted to protect their traditional economic privileges. They refused to pay the taxes that the king’s ministers were demanding. The middle class and the peasantry were also discontented:
- The upper middle class, or bourgeoisie, wanted to abolish the absolute monarchy because it didn’t allow them to participate in government.
- The lower middle class, or petite bourgeoisie, was suffering from economic difficulties caused by wars, higher taxes, and increased competition from British products.
- The peasantry also suffered economic problems caused by wars, taxes, and poor harvests. Moreover, they also had to pay higher rent to the clergy and nobility.
In addition to these problems, the middle class and peasantry were angered by the luxurious lifestyle of the royal family and court. They also objected to the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the nobility.
Major Events of the French Revolution
In the face of increasing political and economic problems, Louis XVI decided to call together the Estates-General in 1789 in order to increase taxes. This meeting marked the beginning of the French Revolution.
The National Assembly
At the meeting of the Estates-General, the third estate proposed a new voting system in which each representative would have an individual vote. When the king refused, the members of the third estate declared themselves the true representatives of the nation. Then they formed a National Assembly and demanded a constitution.
The Constituent Assembly
The king finally agreed to the third estate’s demands. A new Constituent Assembly was elected to write a constitution. At the same time, protesters began to riot in the streets of Paris, and on July 14, 1789, they attacked the Bastille (a famous political prison). After that, more riots broke out in the countryside and in other cities around France.
The Legislative Assembly
After the constitution had been adopted, a new Legislative Assembly was elected to implement the necessary legal changes. Two political groups dominated this assembly:
- The Girondins believed in the revolution but represented the interests of the bourgeoisie. Their political ideas gradually became more moderate. The Girondins favored liberal economic policies that helped the middle class and wanted to maintain limited suffrage.
- The Jacobins also believed in the revolution, but their political ideas gradually became more radical. The Jacobins wanted to abolish the monarchy and put the king on trial, expand suffrage, and control price rises to help the workers. As a result, they gained support from the Parisian laborers known as the sans-culottes.
Louis XVI opposed the reforms of the Legislative Assembly and asked Austria for support. In response, the assembly imprisoned the king, abolished the monarchy, and declared France a republic.
The Convention
After the election of a new assembly known as the Convention, Louis XVI was accused of treason and executed. A number of European countries formed a coalition and declared war on France to prevent the revolution from spreading. Under the leadership of Robespierre, the Jacobins took control of the government and imposed a dictatorship, known as the Terror. They tried to coordinate the European war while also dealing with the activities of counter-revolutionaries at home.
The Directory and the Consulate
By 1795, France’s moderate middle class had gained control of the country. In order to stop the violence and executions, they established the Directory. The Directory was a more conservative government which was composed of five members. In 1799, France was still at war with other European powers, and at home, radical revolutionaries wanted to regain control. In response, General Napoleon Bonaparte organized a military coup and established a new form of government called the Consulate. This was a group of three leaders known as consuls, which included Napoleon himself as head of state and First Consul.
From Revolution to Empire
Napoleon Bonaparte gradually increased his power and was named First Consul for Life in 1802. He then declared himself Emperor of France in 1804. Napoleon’s policy achievements as emperor included the following:
- Domestic Policy: He established the Civil Code—a set of laws that applied equally to all citizens. It introduced new legal concepts, such as civil marriage, divorce, adoption, and state education.
- International Policy: Napoleon expanded his empire as a result of numerous military victories over the European powers. In the lands that he conquered, Napoleon imposed enlightened and revolutionary policies, including constitutions that abolished absolute monarchy.
The Consequences of the French Revolution
The main consequence of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire was the crisis and ultimate disintegration of the Ancien Régime. The most important changes during this time were:
Political Changes
- The French Revolution brought about the end of absolute monarchy.
- New forms of government were established, such as constitutional monarchies and republics.
- New constitutions were based on popular sovereignty and the separation of powers.
- New constitutions established limited male suffrage and civil rights.
- Elections led to the emergence of political groups.
Economic Changes
- Legal changes ended the economic privileges that had characterized the Ancien Régime.
- All citizens now had to pay taxes and contribute to the state’s expenses. This included the nobility and clergy.
- New laws guaranteed private property rights.
- Free trade was also guaranteed, which benefited middle-class merchants.