18th Century Transformations: Enlightenment, Trade, and Revolution
The Bill of Rights
A document that limits the power of the monarch (king).
The Independence of the U.S. and its Constitution
In the 18th century, the 13 British colonies on the East Coast of North America organized the first colonial insurrection. They established the first government founded on principles of equality and freedom.
Causes of the American Revolution
The American colonists were unhappy with Britain for two main reasons:
- They were not allowed to send representatives to Parliament (taxation without representation).
- Britain imposed commercial monopolies and taxes (especially on tea).
The Boston Tea Party and Declaration
The British decision to grant a monopoly on the sale of tea to a British company caused a rebellion in Boston known as the Boston Tea Party (1773). King George III responded by sending an army to stop the rebellion.
To strengthen their position, delegates from the 13 colonies met in Philadelphia and drafted the United States Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776). This document stated the duty of a government to respect the inalienable rights of its people.
After a long war and a decisive defeat at Yorktown, Britain recognized the colonies’ independence (1783). George Washington became the first president of the United States in 1789.
The U.S. Constitution (1787)
The new United States created a written constitution in 1787 (the first in history). Key features included:
- Ensuring the separation of powers (executive, legislative, and judicial).
- Establishing a republican government headed by an elected president with broad powers.
- Implementing a federal system of government.
The Bill of Rights Amendments
The Constitution was completed with a Bill of Rights that guaranteed fundamental freedoms:
- Freedom of religion, press, speech, and assembly.
- The right to trial by jury.
- The guarantee that no one could be deprived of life, liberty, or property without proper court proceedings (due process).
Enlightened Despotism
Key figures considered enlightened despots include:
- Frederick the Great of Prussia
- Maria Theresa of Austria
- Catherine the Great of Russia
- Gustav III of Sweden
- Charles III of Spain
Key Changes Proposed by Enlightenment Thinkers
Social Changes
- They opposed stratified society and argued that no one should inherit prestige or privilege or be entitled to them because of their ancestors.
- They defended social mobility, equality of origin, and personal merit.
Economic Changes
- They opposed mercantilism, which was based on the accumulation of precious metals as the main source of wealth of a country. Instead, they defended agriculture and productive work as the source of national wealth (physiocracy).
- They opposed state regulations and defended free trade (economic liberalism).
Political Changes
- Criticism of despotism and the arbitrariness of absolutism.
- Montesquieu proposed the separation of powers (legislative, executive, and judicial), with an emphasis on the independence of judicial power.
- Rousseau expressed the need for a social contract between the ruler and the individuals (constitution). He also defended the idea of popular sovereignty, meaning power comes from the free consent of all citizens, expressed through voting.
- Voltaire defended the need for a parliament that limits the power of the monarch, and fiscal justice.
The Ancient Regime (Ancien Régime)
The Ancient Regime was characterized by:
- An agrarian and manorial economy.
- A society based on privileges (stratified society).
- An absolute monarchy government.
Atlantic Trade and Colonial Commerce
Colonial trade, the European maritime trade to other continents, expanded considerably in the 18th century. Ships from Britain, the Netherlands, France, Spain, and Portugal used new trade routes to exchange manufactured goods for raw materials from the colonies.
Colonial products like sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, and cocoa became commonly used in Europe.
The Triangular Trade and Slavery
The basis of colonial trade was the Triangular Trade, which included the horrific Atlantic Slave Trade. Slaves were forcibly taken from Africa to the Americas. There, they were sold and forced to work in terrible conditions on agricultural plantations in the Caribbean, Brazil, and the British colonies in North America.
The financial benefits of colonial trade were extremely high, favoring the proliferation of merchants, bankers, and moneylenders, and stimulating the development of banks and commercial companies.
18th Century Population Growth
Population growth occurred due to several factors:
- Greater agricultural production.
- General economic growth.
- Fewer major epidemics.
These factors resulted in a lower death rate and an increase in the birth rate. Population growth increased agricultural production (more consumers meant greater demand), which, in turn, helped stimulate the economy.
Development of Agriculture and Manufacturing
New Systems of Production
Two new systems of production emerged:
- The Domestic System
- Peasants were provided with the necessary raw materials and tools to make products in their workshops (often referred to as the putting-out system).
- Factories
- These were either state-run or privately owned, employing many workers to make specific products (usually luxury goods).