18th Century Spain: Enlightenment and Crisis
Illustration and Despotism
The Enlightenment Ideas
The Enlightenment was a thought current characterized by the use of reason. It arose in the United Provinces and England, with France as its diffuser in Europe and America. Its characteristics are summarized in the following postulates:
- Dominance of critical reason as opposed to tradition and religious dogma.
- Religious tolerance.
- Interest in productive activities and improving the living conditions of people to achieve happiness.
- Importance of education to expand the use of reason.
The Enlightenment was not a revolutionary movement, but it opposed legal inequalities and privileges.
The Spanish Illustration
Together with the Novatores (a group of scientists, physicians, and humanists worried about Spain’s backwardness and scholasticism in universities), works by Padre Feijoo and Gregorio Mayans brought thought and criticism about traditionalism. Figures like Campomanes, Jovellanos, Count of Aranda, and Floridablanca led the Bourbon reformism. Enlightenment thinking, unable to be disseminated in scholasticism-dominated universities, spread through the creation of academies and the Economic Societies of Friends of the Country. These societies aimed to develop the provincial economy and promote education among farmers. They criticized the causes of Spanish backwardness:
- Prevalence of scholastic thought.
- Little value given to science and technology.
- The poor agrarian situation due to privileges.
In conclusion, the Ilustrados aimed to solve these cited problems.
The Enlightened Despotism of Carlos III
Carlos III, the most representative figure of enlightened despotism, worried about improving the economy, the organization of the State, and the acceptance of the king as the ideal man.
The Early Italian Stage
Upon the death of Fernando VI without issue, Charles III, then King of the Two Sicilies, renounced this title and became King of Spain. His Italian ministers, who supported radical reformers, aroused opposition that erupted in the Esquilache Riots of 1766, met with a violent response that froze the most advanced reformism.
The Moderate Reforms
More moderate measures were adopted, with Spanish figures like Campomanes, Aranda, and Jovellanos as key promoters. These reforms encompassed all areas:
- Religious Reforms: The Church, the most powerful institution after the monarchy, saw its power reduced by the enlightened regime. The expulsion of the Jesuits, the reduction of pilgrimages and processions, and other measures accelerated this process.
- Economic Reforms: Reforms to increase tax collection included the creation of the National Lottery and the improvement of economic activities. A significant move towards economic liberalism was taken.
- Military Reforms: Military conscription was established, later becoming a professional officer corps.
- Social Reforms: Disparate reforms aimed to dignify industrial and commercial work, addressing marginalized groups and practices like bullfighting.
- Institutional Reforms: Carlos III introduced elected positions for the population, such as trustees and common deputies.
Despite the reforms and improvements, enlightened despotism had limitations when attempting to change some of the privileges of the Old Regime’s opponents.
Economy and Society in the 18th Century
Demographic Trends
The Spanish population increased during the 18th century, as attested by population censuses. This growth was uneven, intense in the periphery and smaller in the interior. The factors causing this increase were the decrease in mortality (due to the disappearance of plagues and less frequent wars), increased birth rates, and hygienic and sanitary progress. This population growth was not concentrated in cities.
Economic Activities
Agriculture
Crop yields remained low. Technical delays and weather incidences generated a population-resources crisis and unstable subsistence. New crops, mainly cereals, potatoes, and corn, were introduced, and reforestation was promoted.
Manufacturing Output
Manufacturing output was very low. Local, market-oriented, and predominantly craft workshop industries were common. Rural industry development during the century did not trigger many industrial processes. To encourage manufacturing, various strategies were established, such as the implementation of protectionist measures to develop national manufacturing. Public building projects, called Royal Factories, produced luxury goods. Since the reign of Charles III, an economic policy of liberalism was imposed.
Trade
Trade grew considerably, favoring economic growth and affecting the population both internally and externally. The transport infrastructure was poor, with abundant tolls. The internal market was relatively integrated, with public works undertaken to improve roads and seaports, and customs and tolls abolished. However, inadequate trade continued to hinder Spain’s development. Outside Europe and America, little was imported besides raw materials and foodstuffs. Spain tried to revive American trade, taking steps such as the suppression of fleets and the creation of commercial companies that could exploit a territory and trade any product. The failure of the latter led to American trade liberalization. From then on, Spain’s exports to America consisted of manufactured goods, while imports were precious metals and food. Trade with the colonies grew throughout the 18th century.
The Continuity of the Old Regime
Although Spain continued with reforms, it remained embedded in the Old Regime:
- Society was divided into three estates: nobility, clergy, and commoners, each with its privileges and no possibility of upward mobility.
- The form of government remained an absolute monarchy.
- The economic base remained agricultural production, with lands concentrated in the hands of the nobility and the church. This was compounded by the depreciation of land, restrictions on its sale or purchase, and the mayorazgo system, which concentrated all family heritage in the eldest child.
Neither Bourbon reformism nor enlightened despotism changed the Old Regime, but they were identified with intellectual and social movements.
Questioning of the Old Regime
A number of changes began to transform the basis of the Old Regime. The most transformative elements were:
- The growing importance of free private property.
- The gradual liberalization of economic activity.
- The rise of the bourgeoisie, which grew in economic and intellectual power.
- The criticisms of Enlightenment thought.
These factors altered the old order and opened the door to social change with liberal revolutions and the development of capitalism.
Carlos IV: The Beginning of the Crisis of the Ancien Regime
The crisis of the Ancien Regime coincided with the reign of Charles IV.
The Economic Crisis
In agriculture, falling yields and rising prices sparked social unrest and riots. The manufacturing sector was also affected, and the economic situation worsened with the yellow fever epidemic, which increased mortality.
The Consequences of the French Revolution
The government of Charles IV struggled to address the causes and consequences of the French Revolution, leading to:
- Internally, a slowdown in Enlightenment reforms and an attempt to tackle revolutionary ideas.
- Internationally, the breakdown of the Family Pacts led to confrontation with France and alliance with the United Kingdom, lasting until 1795, followed by a return to the French alliance and conflict with the British. This presented two cycles:
- The first war against France, with European monarchies allied against revolutionary France and Spain. The war ended with a firm defeat and the Peace of Basel.
- The war against the United Kingdom, which led to the defeat at Trafalgar, signifying the loss of Spanish naval power.
The consequences were population losses, destruction caused by the war with France, the cessation of international trade, and budget deficits.
The Internal Political Crisis
Carlos IV relied on Manuel Godoy to manage governance. Godoy’s prestige suffered due to his inability to resolve economic problems. His opposition was reinforced by other factors, such as Bonaparte’s intervention in Naples (which Godoy underwent to the east) and the antagonism of Prince Ferdinand, supported by the aristocracy.