18th Century Politics, Society & Culture
The Ancien Régime
During the 17th and 18th centuries, France operated under a sociopolitical system known as the Ancien Régime. This term also describes the situation in most other European countries during this period. Its most significant characteristics were:
Absolute Monarchy
The monarch ruled by divine right and exercised absolute power. It was believed that only God could judge the monarch’s actions.
State Intervention in the Economy
The economy was based on agrarian activities, with some trade and urban handicrafts. The state played an active role in economic matters.
Argument from Authority
Knowledge and beliefs were based on the authority of powerful individuals or institutions, such as the monarch, the Church, or ancient texts. These ideas were considered valid without proof.
The Estate System
Society was divided into three estates:
- The First Estate (clergy)
- The Second Estate (nobility)
- The Third Estate (commoners: bourgeoisie, wage-laborers, and peasants)
The first two estates enjoyed privileges and were financially supported by taxes paid by the Third Estate, leading to resentment, especially from the increasingly powerful bourgeoisie.
Parliamentary Systems
While absolute monarchy was the most common political system in 17th-century Europe, new models emerged in the Dutch Republic and England.
Dutch Republic
In 1581, part of the Spanish Netherlands gained independence, replacing monarchy with a federal republic of seven provinces. Each province had its own assembly, and the States General served as the federal assembly. Each province also appointed an executive known as the stadtholder.
England
Following a period of revolution, the English Parliament passed the Bill of Rights in 1689, establishing a parliamentary monarchy. Parliament, divided into the House of Lords (nobility) and the House of Commons (bourgeoisie), limited the monarch’s powers, particularly over finances.
The Age of Enlightenment
The Enlightenment, an 18th-century intellectual movement primarily in England and France, was based on:
- Reason: A tool to guide knowledge and understand the universe through science.
- Critical Thinking: Questioning anything lacking reasoned understanding.
- Progress: The idea that knowledge can transform society and improve the human condition.
Scientific Advances
Building on the rationalism and empiricism of 17th-century thinkers like Descartes and Locke, the 18th century saw significant scientific advancements across various fields, including physics (Newton), biology (Linnaeus), astronomy (Herschel), chemistry (Lavoisier), medicine (Jenner), and exploration (Cook).
Enlightenment Thinkers
French thinkers played a key role in spreading Enlightenment ideas, opposing the Ancien Régime and advocating for freedom and equality. Key figures include:
- Rousseau: Championed democratic ideas like popular sovereignty and advanced new views on education.
- Montesquieu: Advocated for the separation of powers to limit the monarch’s authority.
- Voltaire: Believed in natural religion and a Supreme Being but rejected churches and superstition. Supported a strong monarchy limited by parliament.
The Encyclopédie
Published between 1751 and 1772, the Encyclopédie, edited by Diderot and D’Alembert, compiled contemporary knowledge based on reason. It became a highly influential work despite facing opposition from traditional establishments.
New Economic Theories
Enlightenment ideas influenced economic theory, leading to less state intervention and the rise of:
Physiocracy
Developed by French economists like Quesnay, physiocracy emphasized land as the primary source of wealth and advocated for private land ownership and minimal state control.
Economic Liberalism
Formulated by Adam Smith, economic liberalism posited that individual labor is the true source of wealth and advocated for free market exchanges driven by supply and demand.
Enlightened Despotism
Some 18th-century European monarchs, known as enlightened despots, adopted certain Enlightenment principles, focusing on economic and cultural progress while maintaining absolute rule. Examples include Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, and Carlos III of Spain.
Independence of the United States
Enlightenment ideas found practical application in the Thirteen Colonies. Growing tensions with Great Britain over taxation led to the Boston Tea Party (1773) and the War of Independence (1775-1783). The colonies declared independence in 1776, and the Constitution of 1787 enshrined Enlightenment principles like national sovereignty, separation of powers, suffrage, and individual rights.
A European War: The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714)
The death of Carlos II of Spain in 1700 without an heir triggered the War of the Spanish Succession. The Peace of Utrecht (1713-1714) recognized Philip V of Bourbon as king of Spain but resulted in Spain ceding territories to Austria, Great Britain, and Savoy.
A Civil War in Spain
The succession dispute led to a civil war in Spain. Felipe V’s Nueva Planta decrees abolished the fueros and privileges of Aragón, Cataluña, Valencia, and Mallorca, centralizing power under Castilian law.
A New Dynasty: The House of Bourbon
Bourbon rule in Spain was characterized by strong absolutism, regalismo (weakening the Church’s power), new institutions for a centralized state, and the Pacte de Famille (alliances with France).
Enlightenment Ideas in Spain
While lacking the revolutionary aspect of the French Enlightenment, Spain adopted Enlightenment ideas in economics, culture, and education, particularly under Carlos III. Key figures include Feijoo, Olavide, Campomanes, and Jovellanos. Institutions like the Societies of Friends of the Country and royal academies promoted development and knowledge.
Economic Reforms in Spain
Spain implemented various economic reforms, including founding royal factories and schools to promote industry, improving transport infrastructure, ending trade monopolies, and modernizing agriculture using physiocratic ideas.
Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism, an artistic style emerging in late 18th-century France, emphasized reason, balance, and a return to classical forms. It was promoted by art academies and influenced architecture, sculpture, and painting.
Neoclassical Architecture
Neoclassical architecture incorporated classical elements like purity, grandeur, symmetry, and elegance. Notable architects included Soufflot and Langhans.
Neoclassical Sculpture
Neoclassical sculpture emulated classical models in simplicity, themes, materials (marble, bronze), and idealized figures. Canova was a prominent figure.
Neoclassical Painting
Neoclassical painting focused on portraits, daily life, historical subjects, and classical themes. It prioritized line over color and featured serene figures and lighting. David and Ingres were key French painters.
Neoclassicism in Spain
Neoclassicism faced initial resistance in Spain but eventually gained ground through the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Carlos III commissioned major Neoclassical projects in Madrid. Spanish Neoclassical painting, influenced by Mengs, embraced classical themes, portraits, historical subjects, and costumbrista scenes. Later artists included Madrazo and Goya.