18th Century Europe: Society, Enlightenment, and Bourbon Spain
The Ancien Régime
The Ancien Régime was the dominant social, economic, and political system in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century. Kings held absolute power, believed to be divinely ordained. However, in England, the monarch’s power was checked by the two Houses of Parliament. This difference led to significant events, including the execution of Charles I in 1649 and the overthrow of James II in 1688. James II was replaced by William III of Orange, who signed the Bill of Rights, limiting his own authority.
The Economy
Agriculture: Over 80% of the population were peasants, resulting in low agricultural productivity.
Industry: Guilds continued to control urban manufacturing. However, a domestic or putting-out system emerged in rural areas, where families produced goods independently of guild control.
Trade: International trade thrived due to new sea routes and markets. Mercantilist policies, emphasizing protectionism, were adopted by many states.
Demographics and Society
Life in the Ancien Régime was challenging, with frequent famines, diseases, and wars. Society was divided into three estates:
- Nobility and Clergy: These privileged estates were exempt from taxes.
- The Third Estate: This group comprised the majority of the population, including peasants, the bourgeoisie (traders, bankers, professionals), and urban workers. They bore the burden of taxation. The bourgeoisie, despite their growing economic power, lacked political representation and desired the Ancien Régime’s downfall.
Education: Literacy was limited among the Third Estate. The sons of the bourgeoisie and nobility often received education from private tutors.
Housing: Living conditions varied drastically, from single-room dwellings shared with animals to grand residences and palaces.
Ways of Thinking: Manual labor was considered dishonorable, while honor was prized above wealth. Many aspired to achieve a noble lifestyle.
The Enlightenment
The 18th century in Europe saw the rise of the Enlightenment, a cultural and intellectual movement challenging the Ancien Régime’s core principles. Enlightenment thinkers advocated for equitable taxation, separation of powers, and economic systems based on physiocracy and liberalism.
Enlightened monarchs implemented reforms in education, administration, and the economy, but generally avoided political changes.
Spain in the 18th Century: The Bourbons
Following the death of Charles II, a succession crisis arose. Philip of Anjou, backed by Castile and France, and Charles of Habsburg, supported by Aragón, Austria, Savoy, and Britain, both claimed the Spanish throne. Philip V ultimately prevailed. He centralized power, implemented the Nueva Planta Decrees, abolishing Aragonese privileges, and established new administrative structures.
Charles III, an enlightened monarch, introduced various reforms, including regulating professions, opening trade with the Americas, and repopulating the Sierra Morena region.
Science and Art
The 18th century witnessed significant scientific and technological advancements. The Rococo artistic style, originating in France around 1730, spread across Europe before being succeeded by Neoclassicism.