18th-Century Europe: Society, Economy, and Revolution
Manorial Agriculture and Economic Expansion
In 18th-century Europe, a part of Europe was under the Old Regime. Agriculture was the primary economic activity, characterized by subsistence farming and a three-year crop rotation system with fallow. This period saw frequent crises of subsistence: periods of food scarcity, price increases, hunger, and misery, often leading to popular revolts.
However, the 17th century also witnessed a period of international peace. Between 1650 and 1800, Europe’s population doubled from 100 to 200 million, marking significant population growth. This was partly due to the disappearance of epidemics, the introduction of new crops, and a more stable economy. Production increased, and trade, especially colonial trade, experienced substantial growth. The basis of this colonial trade was the triangular trade.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that developed in Europe during the 18th century, challenging the principles of the Old Regime. Precursors to this movement included John Locke, who criticized absolutism and proposed the division of powers, and Isaac Newton, whose scientific method was based on observation and verification of facts.
The Enlightenment emphasized reason as the primary means of understanding the world. Key figures like Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot, and Rousseau advocated for freedom and equality, arguing that all individuals are born free and equal. This led to the concept of social mobility based on merit and intelligence.
Economic and Political Thought
Economic Thought: In opposition to mercantilism, which advocated for the accumulation of precious metals and saw commerce as the primary source of wealth, physiocracy emerged. Physiocrats believed that agriculture was the foundation of a country’s wealth and supported private property, free trade, and industry, opposing state intervention.
Political Thought: Enlightenment thinkers opposed absolutism and developed liberalism. Montesquieu advocated for the separation of powers (legislative, executive, and judicial) with an emphasis on judicial independence. Rousseau introduced the concept of the social contract and national sovereignty, where all citizens have the right to vote. Voltaire argued for a parliament to limit the king’s power and a fair tax system.
The Encyclopedia
Diderot and d’Alembert initiated the Encyclopedia project, aiming to compile all contemporary knowledge based on reason and the study of nature. First published in 1751, it eventually comprised 35 volumes, with contributions from various Enlightenment thinkers. These ideas were also discussed in academies.
The United States Constitution
The United States Constitution, drafted on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, is the supreme law of the United States. It was ratified by delegates representing the thirteen states.
Causes of the French Revolution
The French Revolution resulted from the clash between two different economic and social models: the bourgeoisie versus the Old Regime. By the late 18th century, there was a significant imbalance between economic development and the social and political structure of the Old Regime.
- The bourgeoisie held economic power but lacked political influence, while the nobility retained political power.
- Industrial growth benefited the bourgeoisie, but this prosperity was threatened by feudal labor structures and limitations on trade and industry.
- The bourgeoisie opposed the social and fiscal privileges of the nobility and clergy, demanding a place in the state and society that reflected their economic power.
- The nobility clung to the feudal model, resisting the changes demanded by the bourgeoisie.
Cyclical Problems of the 1780s
- Subsistence Crises: Poor harvests of grain and wine, along with livestock crises from 1788, led to increased prices for bread and food.
- Decreased Salaries: Between 1785 and 1789, purchasing power fell by more than half.
- Drop in Production: Reduced purchasing power led to decreased demand for products.
- British Products in France: A 1786 trade treaty allowed British products into France, exacerbating the industrial crisis and unemployment.
- Financial Crisis: The French monarchy was deeply in debt, and attempts to reform the tax system by taxing the nobility and clergy were unsuccessful, leading to near financial collapse.
Enlightened Despotism
Enlightened despotism was a characteristic form of government in 18th-century Europe, summarized by the phrase “for all the people without the people.” It combined absolutism with centralized, rationalized state administration, education reforms focused on practical sciences, and economic modernization through property liberalization and industrial and agricultural development programs. Monarchs also sought to defend royal prerogatives against the Church.
The Class Society
The society of the Old Regime was divided into three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the Third Estate. This society was characterized by civil inequality, with two distinct groups: the privileged and the non-privileged.
The Privileged
The Clergy: The clergy constituted a small but powerful group, owning significant urban and rural properties. The high clergy (bishops, abbots) held considerable power, while the low clergy (priests, monks) were less influential.
The Nobility: The nobility, the second core of the ruling class, owned 30-40% of the land and enjoyed various honorable, economic, and tax concessions.
The Non-Privileged
The Third Estate: This group represented the vast majority of the population. Despite its diversity, by the end of the Old Regime, they were united by their opposition to the feudal regime’s social privileges and their demand for civil equality.
The Third Estate included three main groups:
- The Bourgeoisie: The dominant group within the Third Estate, economically powerful and dynamic.
- Urban Working Classes: Manual workers in cities.
- Peasants: The largest sector of the population under the Old Regime.
Phases of the French Revolution
- Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)
- Democratic Republic (1792-1794)
- Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799)
Liberalism
Liberalism is a group of ideologies that advocate for individual freedom and the supremacy of the individual over the collective.
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that asserts the right of peoples to self-determination and the defense of their sovereignty.